B^^^^m^nmH  M 


COMPO- 
SITION 

AND 
RHETORIC  ; 

FOR 

SCHOOLS 


HERRICKandDAMON. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/compositionrhetoOOherr 


COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

FOE    SCHOOLS 


ROBERT   HERRICK,  A.B. 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OP  ENGLISH  IN  THE   TXIVERSITY  OF   CHICAGO 


LINDSAY  TODD  DAMON,  A.B. 

PROFESSOR  OF   RHETORIC,  BROWN    I'NIVKRSITY 


REVISED  EDITION 


CHICAGO 
SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 

1908 


COPYRIGHT,    1899,    1902, 
BY    SCOTT,    FOKESMAN   AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE 

Certain  beliefs  in  reference  to  the  teaching  of  English 
composition  in  schools  have  influenced  the  authors  in 
preparing  the  present  text-book. 

1.  In  the  earliest  years,  the  critical  aim  in  teaching 
should  be  subordinated  to  the  constructive,  stimulative 
aim;  the  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  write  freely  and 
even  unconsciously  at  first,  to  form  habits  of  thought  and 
of  invention  before  his  expression  is  minutely  criticised 
and  pruned.  For  this  reason  Part  I  has  been  made  a  pre- 
liminary course  of  constructive  work.  To  these  chapters 
nothing  of  a  merely  negative  or  minutely  critical  nature 
has  been  admitted.  The  processes  of  work  that  a  con- 
scientious writer  follows  are  described,  as  closely  as  possi- 
ble in  the  natural  order  in  which  these  processes  occur 
in  a  writer's  experience. 

3.  Much,  if  not  all,  of  the  usual  freshman  course  of 
rhetoric  in  colleges  can  properly  be  included  in  the  second- 
ary course  in  English  without  requiring  more  time  than 
is  already  devoted  to  the  subject.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  students  of  secondary 
schools  enter  college,  it  seems  desirable  to  present  to  tlie 
high-school  pupil  all  the  elementary  facts  of  style,  such  as 
usage,  important  rhetorical  principles,  and  paragraphing. 
Many  of  the  best  text-books  designed  for  schools,  however, 
are  purposely  incomplete  in  treatment;  they  take  for 
granted  that  the  student  will  pursue  a  further  course  of 
instruction. 

3.  In  the  usual  secondary  course,  the  text-book  in 
rhetoric  is  too  markedly  separated  from  the  work  in  com- 

3 


4  PREFACE 

position.  Frequently  it  is  assigned  to  bo  taught  during 
one  year  of  the  course,  or  one  term  of  a  year,  and  is  after- 
wards dismissed  from  the  pupil's  attention.  This  is  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that  most  text-books  are  designed  for  a 
short  course,  in  which  the  subject  is  presented  methodic- 
ally and  theoretically.  The  authors  of  the  present  book 
believe  that  the  text-book  should  accompany  the  pupil  as 
far  as  possible  through  his  course — at  least  for  two  years. 
Part  I  is  intended  to  provide  for  a  year's  class-work  In 
composition;  Parts  II,  III,  and  IV  are  intended  for  a 
second  year  of  more  systematic  drill  in  the  principles  of 
rhetoric.  Part  V  may  either  be  included  in  the  second 
year  or  expanded  to  give  work  for  an  additional  year. 
This  lengthening  of  the  course  does  not  imply,  however, 
tiiat  daily  lessons  in  the  text-book  should  be  required. 
Probably  one  recitation  period  each  week  will  be  sufficient 
for  the  formal  work  on  the  text-book. 

4.  From  the  design  of  Part  I  it  results  naturally  that 
some  topics  are  treated  twice  in  the  book.  The  authors 
feel  that  this  repetition  in  the  practical  study  of  an  art  is 
not  only  desirable,  but  even  essential,  in  order  that  the 
young  writer  may  be  taught  to  consider  again  and  again, 
under  new  aspects,  the  few  old  and  rather  obvious 
rhetorical  truths.  The  application  of  these  truths  in  new 
circumstances  is  the  important  matter.  The  aim  of  the 
authors  in  this  particular  has  been  to  prepare  a  book  for 
teaching,  not  a  systematic  treatise. 

5.  With  this  aim  in  view,  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  exercises.  A  school-book  on  writing  should 
present  rhetorical  theory  as  a  necessary  comment  upon  the 
exercises,  not  the  exercises  as  an  appendix  to  the  text.  In 
spite  of  the  extended  exercises  provided  for  each  chapter, 
teachers  will  probably  find  it  wise  to  supplement  rather 
than  curtail  thi.i  part  of  the  book.  Again  for  the  sake  of 
practical    results   in  teaching,    a  largo  part  of  the  illus- 


PREFACE  5 

trative  material  in  the  exercises  has  been  taken  from  the 
writing  of  young  students.  Beginners  learn  by  observing 
the  defects  and  the  excellences  of  compositions  within  their 
own  power  of  emulation,  not  by  the  exclusive  study  of 
masterpieces.  For  the  same  reason  it  has  been  deemed 
wise  to  leave  these  crude  examples  of  \vi'iting  in  as  natural 
a  state  as  possible.  Only  the  grosser  blunders  have  been 
removed,  for,  while  each  extract  has  been  chosen  to  illus- 
trate one  specific  error,  the  other  obvious  faults  of  compo- 
sition that  appear  will  provide  opportunities  for  exercising 
the  pupil's  critical  skill.  Further,  it  is  assumed  that  the 
study  of  literature  will  accompany  the  course  in  composi- 
tion, and  that  illustrations  of  effective  writing  to  supple- 
ment those  given  in  the  text  will  not  be  hard  to  find. 

6.  Finally,  a  word  must  be  said  about  two  debatable 
points.  The  use  of  examples  of  bad  English  to  teach  cor- 
rect English  usage  has  been  widely  condemned  of  late 
years,  yet  this  book  follows  the  older  method  in  providing, 
in  Part  II,  copious  exercises  of  this  nature.  Much  can  bo 
said  in  favor  of  this  form  of  exact  drill  in  usage.  In  many 
cases,  it  is  the  only  effective  method.  Still,  wherever  a 
teacher  deems  that  his  class  would  be  harmed  by  examples 
of  bad  English,  he  can  easily  omit  the  debatable  sections 
of  Chapters  IX,  X,  XI,  XII,  XIII.  Again,  the  authors 
have  felt  doubtful  whether  formal  treatment  of  the  kinds 
of  composition  should  be  included  in  a  secondary  school 
course.  As  the  pupil  meets  the  various  literary  forms  in 
his  study  of  English  classics,  however,  some  discussion  of 
the  general  laws  underlying  them  would  seem  to  be  useful 
at  this  period 


No  text-book  should  pretend  to  completeness  of  treat- 
ment or  to  exclusive  originality  of  presentation,  least  of  all 
a  text-book  upon  the  subtle  and  baffling  subject  of  literary 
expression.     The  authors  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric  fo'r 


6  PREFACE 

Schools  have  borrowed  so  largely  and  so  obviously  from  the 
common  sources  of  rhetorical  doctrine  that  acknowledg- 
ment is  superfluous.  Yet  they  desire  to  acknowledge  their 
constant  indebtedness  to  their  teachers,  Professors  A.  S. 
Hill  and  Barrett  "Wendell,  of  Harvard  University,  and  to 
Professor  G.  R.  Carpenter,  of  Columbia  University,  whose 
text-book,  Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition^ 
they  have  used  in  their  classes.  Thanks  are  also  due 
Assistant  Professor  Robert  Morss  Lovett  and  Mr.  James 
Weber  Linn,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  for  helpful 
comment  on  the  proof. 

The  credit  for  the  exercises  of  this  book  is  due  very 
largely  to  Miss  Edith  Burnham  Foster,  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  who  selected  and  arranged  the  illustrative 
material,  and  who  suggested  not  a  few  of  the  questions  in 
them.  For  her  intelligent  and  painstaking  labor  the 
authors  are  very  grateful. 

Chicago, 

April  19,  1899. 

THE  REVISED   EDITION 

The  experience  of  the  three  years  during  which  Com- 
position and  Rhetoric  for  Schools  has  been  used  has  not 
led  the  authors  to  modify  in  any  important  detail,  as  to 
plan  or  treatment,  the  conclusions  expressed  in  the  preface 
of  the  first  edition.  In  preparing  a  revised  edition  they 
have  sought  to  simplify  and  condense  the  text  so  far  as 
possible  and  to  adapt  the  exercises,  epecially  in  Part  I, 
much  more  closely  to  the  needs  of  young  students. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Professor  C.  L.  Kittredge 
for  permission  to  quote  from  Words  and  Their  Ways  in 
English  Speech.  Thanks  are  also  due  Assistant  Professor 
G.  "W,  Bencflict  and  Mr.  G.  W.  Latham,  both  of  Brown 
University,  for  valuable  criticisms  on  parts  of  the  proof. 

June,  1903. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

(SYNOPSIS) 


PART  I 
PRELIMINARY  WORK 


CHAPTER  I 

COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN 
SECTION  PAGE 

1.  Expression  the  Object  of  Our  Study 15 

2.  Composition  Defined 15 

3.  Rlietoric  Defined 16 

4.  Rhetoric  Further  Explained 16 

6.    Tlie  Value  of  Oral  Composition 17 

6.  Differences  between  Spoken  and  Written  Composition  18 

7.  Tlie  Pleasui'e  in  Composition 19 

8.  Themes 19 

CHAPTER  II 

WHAT  TO  WRITE   ABOUT 

0.    How  to  Choose  a  Subject 24 

1.  The  Writer's  Interest  in  His  Subject 24 

2.  The  Writer's  Previous  Information  about  His 

Subject 25 

3.  The  Question  of  Size 25 

4.  Definite  Subjects  the  Best 26 

10.  Finding  Material  to  Write  About 27 

1.  The  Reporter's  Method 27 

2.  Themes  about  Books 28 

3.  Material  from  Other  Studies 30 

4.  Material  from  Newspapers  and  Magazines 30 

11.  Summary  of  Chapter 31 

CHAPTER  III 

BUILDING  THE  THEME 

12.  Different  Methods  of  Writing 35 

IS,    Preliminary  Work  upon  the  Theme — Notes 35 

7 


8  COMrOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

SECTION  PAGE 

14.  Complete  Drafts 38 

15.  A  Second  Subject 41 

16.  Titles 47 

CHAPTER  IV 

PARAGRAPHIXG 

17.  Natural  Divisions  of  a  Subject 53 

18.  Divisions  Easily  Perceived  in  Good  Writing .54 

19.  Paragraphs •"><• 

20.  Length  of  Paragraphs ■')T 

21.  Paragraph  Topics ^^^ 

22.  Topic-Sentences  Continued 59 

CHAPTER  V 

BUILDING  SENTENCES 

23.  Definition  of  the  Sentence 80 

24.  Groups  of  Words  That  Are  Not  Sentences 80 

25.  Content  of  the  Sentence 82 

26.  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  Sentences 83 

27.  Advantages  of  Compound  and  Complex  Sentences. . .  84 

28.  Variety  in  Sentence  Forms  Needed 8.5 

CHAPTER   VI 

HOW  TO   INCREASE   A   VOCABULARY 

2y.     Advantages  of  Having  a  Large  Vocabulary 96 

-  30.    Two  Kinds  of  Vocabularies 100 

31.  L'se  of  the  Vocabulary  Notebook 101 

32.  Study  of  Synonyms 102 

33.  The  ilse  of  Concordances.' ' 102 

34.  Translation 104 

35.  Special  Vocabularies 105 

36.  Summary  of  Chapter 106 

CHAPTER   VII 

A   REVIEW   OF    PUNCTUATION 

37.  Uses  of  Punctuation 114 

3S.     How  to  Learn  Punctuation 115 

39.  Tlie  Comma 115 

40.  Tlie  Semicolon 1 1^ 

41.  The  Colon HO 

42.  The  Period 119 


TABLE  OF    COXTEXTS  9 

SECTION  PAGE 

43.    Marks  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation 119 

U,    The  Dash 120 

46.    The  Apostrophe 131 

46.  Parentheses  (  )  and  ^Brackets  [  ] 121 

47.  Capitals " 121 

48.  Italics 122 

49.  Quotation  Marks 123 

CHAPTER  VIII 

LETTERS 

60.  Letter  Writing 130 

61.  Usage  in  Letters 130 

62.  Business  Letters 131 

63.  Formal  Letters  in  the  First  Person 133 

64.  Formal  Letters  in  the  Third  Person 133 

55.    Informal  Notes 138 

66.    Cautions 183 


PAET  II 
USAGE 


CHAPTER   IX 

GOOD   USE 

57.    The  Basis  of  "Good  Use" 143 

68.  Good  Use  a  Relative  Term 144 

69.  Good  Use  Defined 145 

60.  The  Three  Requirements  of  Good  Use 146 

61.  Present  Use 146 

62.  National  Use 148 

63.  Reputable  Use 154 

64.  How  to  Get  a  Reputable  Vocabulary. 156 

CHAPTER  X 

BARBARISMS 

65.  Barbarisms,  or  Words  Not  English , ,  163 

66.  Obvious  Vulgarisms 163 

67.  Slang 163 

68.  Newspaper  Words 164 

69.  Vulgarisms  Hard  to  Recognize 164 

70.  Abbreviations  Not  in  Good  Use 165 

?1.    Foreign  Words 165 


10  COMPOSITIOX   AND    RHETORIC 

CHAPTER  XI 

IMPROPRIETIES 
SECTION  PAGE 

72.  Improprieties  Defined 168 

73.  "Shall"  and  "Will,"  "Should'"  and  "Would" 169 

74.  "Shall"  and  "Will" 170 

7o.  "Should"  and  "Would" 172 

76.  Some  Common  Improprieties 175 

77.  Verbs 175 

78.  Nouns 179 

79.  Adverbs 183 

80.  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 184 

81.  Adjectives 184 


CHAPTER  XII 

GRAMMAR — GOOD   USE   IN   THE  SENTENCE 

82.  The  Sense  in  Which  Grammar  Is  Here  Used 194 

83.  Nouns 195 

84.  Pronouns 196 

85.  Verbs 197 

86.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 198 

87.  Lack  of  Agreement  in  Number 200 

1.  Subject  and  Predicate 200 

2.  Pronoun  and  Antecedent 201 

88.  False  Correlations  of  the  Double  Conjunctions 201 

89.  Omission  of  "a"  or  "the" 201 

90.  Omission  of  Words  Necessary  to  the  Sense 202 

91.  "Which,"  Used  with  a  Phrase  or  a  Clause  as  Its  Ante- 

cedent   202 

92.  Misuse  of  "and" 203 

93.  Double  Subject  and  Object 203 

CHAPTER  XIII 

IDIOM  AND  TRANSLATION-ENGLISH 

94.  Idiom  Defined 210 

96.    Unidiomatic  Phrasing. .    211 

96.  Unidiomatic  Constructions. 212 

97.  Unidiomatic  Order  of  Words. 213 

98.  Translation-English 213 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  H 

PART  III 
DICTION 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NUMBER  OF  WORDS 
BECTION  PAGE 

99.    The  Value  of  Brevity 223 

100.  Superfluous  Words 223 

101.  Superfluous  Details 227 

CHAPTER  XV 

DISCRIMINATION   IN   THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

102.  Good  Diction  Partly  a  Matter  of  Taste 234 

103.  "Fine  Writing"  a  Fault 234 

104.  Triteness  Often  a  Form  of  "Fine  Writing" 238 

105.  The  Value  of  Simplicity 240 

106.  The  Suggestive  Power  of  Words ^ 242 

107.  Specific  and  General  Words 244 

108.  Figures  of  Speech  an  Aid  to  Suggestion 246 

109.  The  Faults  of  Figurative  Diction 247 

110.  Accuracy  and  Individuality  in  Our  Choice  of  Words. .  249 


PART  IV 
RHETORICAL  PRINCIPLES 


CHAPTER  XVI 

A  SURVEY   OF  THE   CHIEF  RHETORICAL  PRINCIPLES 

111.  The  Nature  of  Rhetorical  Principles 261 

112.  Selection 262 

113.  Unity  262 

114.  Coherence 263 

116.     Emphasis 264 

116.  Proportion 264 

117.  Climax 264 

118.  Necessity  of  Observing  These  Principles 264 

CHAPTER  XVII 

UNITY  IN   SENTENCES 

119.  Unity  Defined 268 

120.  Unity  of  Thought 269 


12  COMPOSITIO^r   AXD   RHETORIC 

SECTION  PAGE 

121.  The  Relation  of  the  Sentence  to  the  Paragraph 371 

122.  Unity  of  Fonn 273 

123.  The  Compound  Form  Often  Destructive  to  Unity 275 

124.  Summary  of  Chapter ' 275 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

COHERENX'E  IN   SENTENCES 

125.  Coherence  Defined 283 

126.  Ambiguity  Defined 283 

127.  Ambiguous  Arrangement  of  Words 283 

12S.     Ambiguous  Pronouns 284 

129.  Ambiguous  Participles  and  Verbal  Nouns  in  "ing"..  286 

130.  Incoherence  from  Misuse  of  Connectives 287 

131.  Incoherence  from  Shifts  of  Construction 288 

132.  Some  Ways  of  Securing  Coherence 291 

133.  Summary  of  Chapter , 293 

CHAPTER  XIX 

FORCE  IN  SENTENCES 

134.  Force  Partly  Dependent  on  the  Form  of  Sentences. . .  299 

135.  Long  and  Short  Sentences 301 

136.  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 304 

137.  Devices  for  Gaining  Periodicity 307 

138.  Emphasis  in  Sentences 308 

139.  Summary  of  Chapter 310 

CHAPTER  XX 

THE  STRUCTURE   OF  THE   SINGLE   PARAGRAPH 

140.  Definition  of  the  Paragraph 318 

141.  The  Three  Principles  Governing  the  Single  Paragraph  319 

142.  Paragraph  Unit}'-  Defined 321 

143.  Paragraphs  Too  Long  for  Unity 322 

144.  Paragraphs  Too  Short  for  Unity 334 

145.  Paragraph  Colierence  Defined 326 

146.  Incolierence  from  Faulty  Arrangement 326 

147.  Connectives  an  Aid  to  Coherence 327 

148.  Similarity  of  Sentence-Structure  Sometimes  an  Aid 

to  Coherence 329 

149.  Emphasis  in  Paragraphs 330 

150.  Summary  of  Chapter 332 


TABLE    OF    CONTEXTS  13 

CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  STRUCT DRE  OF   THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION 
SECTION  PAGE 

161.    The  Relation  of  the  Paragraph  to  the  Whole  Compo- 
sition   342 

152.  Unity  in  the  Whole  Composition 343 

153.  Proportion  in  tlie  Whole  Composition 343 

154.  The  Order  of  the  Paragraphs  in  the  Whole  Composi- 

tion   343 

155.  The  Plan,  or  Outline 34.1 

156.  The  Use  of  Connectives 347 

157.  How  to  Open  the  Whole  Composition 349 

158.  How  to  End  the  Whole  Composition 351 


PART  \^ 
KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER  XXII 

SUMMARIES 

159.  Many  Forms  of  the  Whole  Composition. 361 

160.  Defimlion  of  Summai'ies 361 

161.  Different  Methods  of  Summarizing 363 

162.  Proportion  Must  be  Observed 364 

163.  Style 366 

164r.    Summaries  of  Novels  and  Plays 366 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION — DESCRIPTIVE  AND    NARRATIVE    WRITING 

165.  Original  Composition 374 

166.  Two  Kinds  of  Material :     Objects  and  Ideas 375 

167.  The  Nature  of  Description 376 

168.  Description  for  the  Purpose  of  Indentification 376 

169.  Literary  Description 377 

170.  The  Principles  of  Unity  and  Coherence  "Applied  to 

Description 378 

171.  The  Interest  of  Descriptive  Writing 379 

172.  The  Nature  of  Narration 380 

178.    The  Principle  cf  Selection  in  Narration 381 


14  .  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

SECTION  PAGE 

1 74.  The  Importance  of  Coherence  in  Narration 383 

175.  Unity,  Proportion,  and  Climax  in  Narration 383 

176.  Qualities  of  Excellent  Narrative  Writing 383 

CHAPTER  XXTV 

ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION — EXPOSITORY   AND   ARGUMENTATIVE 
WRITING 

177.  Terras 390 

178.  Distinction    between  Description  and  Exposition....  390 
170.     Hints  for  Use  in  Writing  Exposition 391 

180.  Argument 393 

181.  Cautions 394 

182.  Proof 395 

183.  Parts  of  an  Argument 395 

184.  The  Outline  or  Brief 396 

185.  Rhetorical  Princijiles  in  Argument 399 

186.  The  Use  of  Exposition  and  Argument  in  Learning 

How  to  Write 399 

APPENDIX  A 

Figures  of  Speech 407 

APPENDIX  B 

A.  Subjects  Drawn  from  Literature 415 

B.  Character  Sketches 416 

C.  Historical  Subjects 417 

D.  De.scriptive  Subjects 417 

E.  Narrative  Subjects 418 

F.  Unclassified  Subjects 419 

0.    Subjects  for  Short  Themes 421 

APPENDIX  C 

A  List  of  the  Conuuoner  Abbreviations  in  Good  Use 424 

APPENDIX  D 

Abbreviations  and  Signs  for  Use  in  Correcting  Tliemes 426 

Index 427 


PART  I 

PEELIMINARY   WORK 


CHAPTER   I 

COMPOSITION— ORAL  AND  WRITTEN 

1.  Expression  the  Object  of  Our  Study. —Every  one 
seeks  to  make  known  his  thoughts  and  feelings  to  others 
in  some  way.  Even  when  we  do  not  speak,  we  express 
ourselves  in  our  faces  or  in  our  actions.  As  long  as 
we  do  this  naturally  without  thinking  about  what  we 
are  doing,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  express  ourselves 
freely.  But  when  we  begin  to  write  our  thoughts,  we 
think  about  what  we  are  doing,  and  something  seems  to 
clog  our  minds,  the  words  we  want  will  not  come,  the  sen- 
tences will  not  form  themselves  and  join  together  prop- 
erly— in  short,  we  fail  to  express  ourselves.  No  one 
enjoys  doing  anything  badly ;  at  first  few  enjoy  writing, 
no  matter  how  much  they  may  have  to  say.  Practice 
in  composition  and  a  knowledge  of  rhetorical  principles 
help  us  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  Avriting,  and  enable 
us  to  express  easily  our  thoughts  and  feelings, 

2.  Composition  Defined. — In  both  speaking  and  writing, 
single  words  would  answer  our  purpose,  if  we  had  only  de- 
tached, single  facts  to  express.  But  as  thought  is  made  up 
of  related  ideas,  we  must  unite  words  into  sentences,  and 
sentences  into  larger  bodies  —  paragraphs  and  whole 
compositions.  The  selection  of  words,  therefore,  or  even 
the  forming  of  sentences,  is  only  a  part  of  our  task. 
We  may  have  the  right  word  for  every  idea,  we  may  also 
form  correct  sentences,  and  yet  fail  to  express  our  thought. 

15 


16  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

To  complete  our  work,  we  must  put  our  sentences  to- 
gether in  an  orderly  statement.  This  building  a  whole 
out  of  separate  elements  is  called  composition;  the  word 
"composition"  (from  the  Latin  words  cum  and  pono) 
means  literally  tlie  putting  together  of  something. 

Our  study  is  literary  composition,  that  is,  the  putting 
together  of  ideas  expressed  in  words.  We  should 
remember,  however,  that  there  are  many  other  forms  of 
composition.  The  artist  who  paints  a  picture,  the  sculp- 
tor who  models  a  statue,  the  musician  who  writes  a 
symphony,  the  architect  who  builds  a  house,  just  as  much 
as  the  author  of  a  book,  are  all  composers. 

3.  Rhetoric  Defined. — When  we  compose  sentences,  we 
should  select  proper  words  and  unite  them  according  to 
certain  rules  of  language  called  grammar.  The  boy  who 
says,  "He  don't  care  if  he  bust  the  window,"  fails  in  both 
points.  He  uses  "bust,"  Avhich  is  not  English,  and  ho 
unites  the  plural  form  of  the  verb  "do"  with  the  singular 
pronoun  of  the  third  person.  But  rhetoric  goes  further 
than  this.  It  teaches  us  that  if  we  wish  to  express 
ourselves  'well,  it  is  not  enough  to  choose  proper  words 
and  to  unite  them  correctly;  they  must  also  be  united 
effectively.  Moreover,  the  sentences  and  the  groups  of 
sentences  must  be  put  together,  or  composed,  elfectively. 
The  study  that  teaches  us  the  principles  of  correct  and 
effective  composition  is  called  rhetoric. 

4.  Rhetoric  Further  Explained. — Khetoric  does  not,  like 
grammar,  answer  only  the  question  of  right  or  wrong  in 
composition;  it  also  helps  us  to  decide  between  two  or 
more  correct  forms  of  composition  when  we  are  in  doubt 
which  is  the  best  one:  as,  for  example,  when  we  are 
undecided  whether  we  shall  use  a  long  or  a  short  sentence; 
or  whether  a  given  paragraph  belongs  to  one  part  of  a 
chapter  or  another.  Grammar  deals  with  words  and  sen- 
tences only;    rhetoric  deals  with  Avords,  sentences,  para- 


COMPOSITIOX — ORAL   AND   WRITTEN  17 

graphs,  and  the  whole  composition.  Grtimmar  teaches  us 
rules,  which  are  to  a  large  degree  fixed ;  rhetoric  teaches 
us  principles,  which  are  only  general  directions  for  obtain- 
ing effective  composition. 

The  word  rhetoric  has  an  unfortunate  use  in  popular 
speech.  We  hear  frequently  statements  something  like 
these:  "In  spite  of  all  his  rhetoric,  he  did  not  deceive 
me";  "Then  he  grew  rhetorical"  (meaning  bombastic  oi- 
pompous).  When  people  use  the  word  in  this  sense,  they 
imply  that  the  study  of  rhetoric  enables  a  writer  or 
speaker  to  jalay  tricks  on  his  audience  and  make  them 
believe  that  black  is  white,  or  teaches  him  how  to  make 
trivial  thouglits  appear  important.  To  this  is  due  the 
common  feeling  about  rhetoric, — that  it  is  an  art  of 
deception,  against  which  we  should  be  on  our  guard. 
The  true  rhetorician,  however,  teaches  the  writer  not  to 
decorate  poor  thought  or  to  parade  borrowed  ideas,  but  to 
express  his  meaning  clearly,  exactly.  What  is  commonly 
called  rhetoric  is  frequently  a  violation  of  the  real  prin- 
ciples of  rhetoric. 

5.  The  Value  of  Oral  Composition. — Writing,  as  has  been 
said  before,  seems  to  most  of  us  a  very  hard  task,  which 
demands  great  skill  and  natural  ability,  if  not  genius. 
To  write  even  a  letter  seems  to  tlie  beginner  to  require 
special  talent.  Thoughts  fly  apart  when  it  comes  to 
putting  them  on  paper.  Yet  each  one  of  us  engages  in 
composition  many  times  every  day:  every  spoken  sen- 
tence, every  recitation,  every  conversation  with  friends, 
is  an  unconscious  act  of  composition — an  exercise  in  put- 
ting our  thoughts  together  and  expressing  them  in  words. 
The  constant  practice  which  we  get  in  spoken  compo- 
sition will  help  or  hinder  us  in  the  more  difficult  art 
of  written  composition  according  as  we  speak  carefully  or 
carelessly. 

Moreover,  whatever  we  find  really  worth  talking  about  is 


18  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

worth  writing  about  at  greater  or  less  extent.  Choose  topics 
for  composition  from  subjects  that  are  familiar  in  daily  talk ; 
write  on  them  freely  much  as  you  talk ;  and,  conversely, 
discuss  with  friends  the  subject  you  intend  to  write  about. 

6.  Differences  between  Spoken  and  Written  Composition. 
— Nevertheless,  oral  composition,  or  talk,  differs  in  certahi 
respects  from  written  composition.  It  is  less  formal. 
Contractions  such  as  "don't,"  "it's,"  "can't,"  which  give 
naturalness  to  talk,  are  used  sparingly,  or  not  at  all,  in 
writing.  Words,  phrases,  even  subjects  and  predicates 
are  omitted  in  the  hurry  of  conversation,  and  must  be 
supplied  in  writing,  for  in  tlie  latter  case  we  can  not 
depend  on  the  gestures  and  the  facial  expression  of  the 
speaker  to  complete  the  meaning.  Writing  should  be, 
also,  more  orderly  than  conversation.  We  speak  our 
thoughts  rapidly  in  the  order  in  which  they  come  to  us. 
This  order,  however,  is  often  not  the  logical  one,  and  when 
we  write,  we  should  take  time  to  arrange  our  ideas  and 
to  make  plain  the  connection  between  them.  Moreover, 
although  written  sentences  are  coming  to  be  more  like 
spoken  sentences  than  in  the  past,  they  are  usually  longer, 
more  complicated,  and  more  closely  knit  together  than  the 
sentences  we  speak.  For  example,  we  should  not  be  likely 
to  unite  in  one  spoken  sentence  so  many  thoughts  as  Haw- 
thorne does  in  the  following  written  sentence: 

In  the  growth  of  the  towu,  however,  after  some  thirty  or 
forty  years,  the  site  covered  by  this  rude  hovel  had  become  ex- 
ceeding desirable  in  the  eyes  of  a  prominent  and  powerful 
personage,  who  asserted  plausible  claims  to  the  proprietorship 
of  this  and  a  large  adjacent  tract  of  land,  on  the  strength  of  a 
grant  of  land  from  the  Legislature. 

And  these  sentences,  natural  and  proper  in  conversation, 
would  scarcely  be  suitable  for  written  composition : 

Yes!  There  is  the  boat  now.  See— just  creeping  around  that 
head  of  land.  Five  minutes  more,  and  he'll  be  home.  Come! 
Let's  surprise  him. 


COMPOSITION — OEAL   AND    WRITTEN  19 

We  should  keep  in  mind  these  distinctions  and  not  allow 
ourselves,  when  writing,  the  liberties  of  speech.  At  bot- 
tom, however,  the  art  of  composition  is  the  same  whether 
we  practice  it  unconsciously  in  talk,  or  more  carefully 
with  the  aid  of  jien  and.  paper.  In  either  case  the  object 
is  to  express  our  thoughts  and  feelings  exactly,  and  to 
interest  others  in  what  we  have  to  say. 

7.  The  Pleasure  in  Composition. — If  good  writing  does 
not  differ  really  from  good  talking,  and  Ave  find  pleas- 
ure in  expressing  ourselves  in  speech,  then  the  task 
of  composition  on  paper  should  not  be  distasteful.  Just 
as  soon  as  we  learn  to  use  the  pen  without  thinking  about 
it,  we  shall  find  delight  in  writing.  Composition  is  a  voy- 
age of  discovery,  a  perpetual  experiment.  Every  word  is 
a  new  element;  every  phrase  or  sentence,  a  new  com- 
pound. Since  we  can  vary  these  infinitely  at  our  pleasure, 
we  can  have  forms  to  express  each  new  idea.  And  no  one 
is  without  ideas  to  express.  Our  thoughts  may  be  simple 
and  commonplace,   but  they  are  worth  expressing  well. 

8.  Themes. — Practice  in  written  composition  is  the  only 
means  by  which  we  can  make  Avriting  as  natural  and  as 
easy  as  oral  composition.  The  course  of  study  outlined  in 
this  book  assumes  that  the  student  is  writing  weekly  exer- 
cises, sometimes  daily  ones.  For  convenience  we  shall 
refer  to  these  exercises  in  composition  as  themes.  We 
shall  find  it  useful  to  have  some  method  in  our  work;  the 
following  suggestions,^  especially  No.  5,  in  reference  to 
rewriting,  have  been  found  helpful : 

»Both  instructor  and  student  will  find  it  of  great  advantage  if  these  direc- 
tions are  followed  invariably.  Without  attention  to  system  a  large  number 
of  manuscripts  can  not  be  handled  easily.  All  themes  should  be  handed  in 
promptly  at  the  date  and  the  hour  set.  This  is  a  courtesy  due  the  instruc- 
tor. If  no  excuses  are  accepted,  the  student  %\-ill  find  it  easy  to  be  punctual 
and  will  experience  great  relief  from  the  annoyance  of  delayed  work.  If  all 
the  themes  when  finally  returned  by  the  student  are  kept  together  in  the 
classroom,  they  will  be  found  useful  for  an  occasional  review.  At  times  it 
will  be  well  for  a  student  to  try  again  a  subject  which  he  has  treated  poorly 
in  an  earlier  theme. 


20  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

1.  Paper. — Ruled  white  paper  of  uniform  size  should  be  used; 
a  convenient  shape  is  the  large  letter  form,  about  eight  by  ten 
inches.  These  sheets,  when  handed  to  the  instructor,  may  be 
folded  once  lengthwise.  Eaeli  sheet  sliould  be  numbered.  The 
tusk  of  examining  papers  is  made  less  difficult  if  only  one  side 
of  the  sheet  is  used. 

2.  Margins. — On  the  left  of  the  page  the  student  should  leave 
a  margin  an  inch  wide  for  the  instructor's  comments. 

3.  Indorsement. — Every  theme  should  be  indorsed  carefully, 
to  show  the  name,  class,  and  date,  thus: 

James  L.  Smith  (not  "Jim"  Smith). 
English,  Class  1. 
November  23,  1902. 

It  should  he  remembered  that  a  neat  manuscript  and  a  careful 
indorsement  make  a  favorable  inqn-e.'ision  upon  the  reader. 

4.  Titles. — Every  theme  should  receive  a  title.  This,  we  shall 
see  later,  is  often  not  the  same  as  the  subject  announced  by  the 
instructor. 

5.  Rewriting  and  Revising.  — When  the  manuscript  is  returned, 
with  the  instructor's  written  comments,  the  student  should  read 
the  theme  carefully  and  study  the  suggestions  made.  If  after 
referring  to  the  sections  of  the  rhetoric  to  which  they  relate 
he  does  not  understand  them,  he  should  consult  the  instructor 
before  attempting  to  rewrite  his  theme.  Somewhere  on  tlie 
tlieme  he  will  find  a  general  criticism,  usually  accompanied  by 
a  direction  to  Rewrite  or  to  Revise.  "Rewi-ite"'  does  not  mean 
merely  copy  the  manuscript ;  tliat  is  an  exercise  in  penmanship, 
not  in  composition.  "Rewrite"  is  a  direction  to  reconstruct  tlie 
theme  according  to  the  suggestions  made  by  the  instructor. 
In  rewriting,  however,  the  student  should  not  rely  entii"ely 
on  the  instructor:  usually  by  the  time  the  theme  has  been 
returned,  he  will  see  for  liim.self  where  he  can  improve  his 
first  effort.  This  is  his  final  opportunitj^  to  make  a  complete 
and  finished  piece  of  work.  Rewriting  often  requires  more 
skill  and  patience,  and  teaches  one  more  about  composition, 
than  the  easy  production  of  the  first  copy.  It  does  'not  nec- 
essarily follow  that  a  theme  is  of  poor  grade  because  the  student 
is  requested  to  rewrite ;  it  implies  frequently  that  the  thought 
contained  in  the  theme  is  worth  working  over.  "Revise,"  on  the 
other  hand,  directs  the  student  to  correct  mistakes  and  impnjve 
we^ik  passages  on  the  original  manascript.  Sometimes,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  rewrite  parts  of  themes  which,  as  a  whole,  need 


COMPOSITION — ORAL    AXD    WRITTEN"  21 

only  revision.  Both  the  old  and  the  new  theme  should  be 
handed  to  the  instructor  finally,  so  that  he  may  judge  intelli- 
gently what  advance  the  student  has  made.  The  final  mark— 
and  the  only  important  one — is  that  which  the  rewritten  or 
revised  theme  receives. 

Exercise  I 

A.  Define  compositiou  and  rhetoric.  What  relation  has 
grammar  to  the  art  of  composition? 

B.  Is  rhetoric  "the  art  of  adornment"?  Does  the 
study  of  rhetoric  supply  the  writer  with  ideas?  With  a 
stock  of  beautiful  phrases?  What  is  the  aim  of  the  study 
of  rhetoric?  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "effective"  as 
used  in  section  3? 

C.  What  other  methods  of  expressing  thought  besides 
speech  and  writing  can  you  name?  What  advantages  has 
written  composition  over  these?  Is  composition  concerned 
with  words  alone? 

D.  What  are  the  differences  between  oral  and  written 
composition?  Illustrate  these  differences  by  commenting 
on  a  passage  of  dialogue  from  a  story  that  you  are  read- 
ing. Select  a  narrative  passage  from  the  same  story  and 
give  the  ideas  as  they  might  be  expressed  in  conversation. 

E.  Write  out,  as  nearly  as  you  can  remember  it,  the  last 
conversation  you  had  with  a  friend  on  one  of  the  following 
topics:  "Onr  football  team";  The  last  basket-ball  game; 
A  trip  with  my  camera;  Howl  spent  my  vacation;  My 
studies  for  this  year ;  A  sail ;  A  bicycle  ride ;  A  good  dinner. 

F.  Tell  the  story  of  the  following  dialogue  in  as  few 
words  as  possible- 

A   RUSSIAN   FABLE 

One  blind  from  birth  asked  a  man  who  could  see,  "What 
color  is  milkV" 

The  man  who  could  see  replied,  "The  color  of  milk  is  like 
white  paper. "' 


22  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

The  l)lind  man  asked,  •This  color  rustles  in  the  hands  like 
paper'.'"" 

The  man  who  could  see  replied,  "No,  it  is  white  like  wliite 
flour."" 

The  blind  man  asked,  "Then  it  is  soft  and  fine  like  flour,  is  it?" 

The  man  who  could  see  replied,  "No,  it  is  simplj-  white,  like  a 
ral)bit." 

The  blind  man  asked,  "Then  it  is  downy  and  soft  like  a  rabbit, 
is  it?" 

The  man  wlio  could  see  replied,  "No;  white  is  a  color  exactly 
like  snow."' 

The  blind  man  asked,  "Then  it  is  cold  like  snow,  is  if?" 

And  in  spite  of  all  the  comparisons  which  the  man  who  could 
see  made,  still  the  blind  man  was  wholly  unable  to  comjirehend 
what  the  color  of  milk  really  was. — Tolstoi:  The  Long  Exile 
and  Other  Stories. 

G.  Put  as  much  as  possible  of  the  following  stories  into 
dialogue : 

A   CHRISTMAS   GOOSE 

There  never  was  such  a  goose.  Bob  said  he  didn't  believe 
there  ever  was  such  a  goose  cooked.  Its  tenderne.ss  and  flavor, 
size  and  cheapness,  were  tlie  themes  of  universal  admiration. 
Eked  oixt  by  the  apple  sauce  and  mashed  potatoes,  'it  was  a  suffi- 
cient dinner  for  the  whole  family;  indeed,  as  Mrs.  Cratchit  said 
with  great  delight  (surveying  one  small  atom  of  a  bone  on  the 
dish),  they  hadn't  ate  it  all  at  last!  .  .  .  But  now,  the  plates 
being  changed  by  Miss  Belinda,  ]Mrs.  Cratchit  left  the  room 
alone — too  nervous  to  bear  witness — to  bring  the  pudding  in. 
.  .  .  In  half  a  minute  she  entered:  flushed,  but  smiling  proudly: 
with  the  pudding  like  a  speckled  cannon-ball,  so  hard  and 
firm.  .  .   . 

Oh,  a  wonderful  pudding!  Bob  Cratchit  said,  and  calmly,  too, 
that  he  regarded  it  as  the  greatest  success  achieved  by  Mrs. 
Cratchit  since  their  marriage.  Mrs.  Cratchit  said  that  now  the 
weight  was  off  her  mind,  she  would  confess  that  she  had  had  her 
doubts  about  the  quantity  of  flour.  Everybodj'  had  something 
to  say  about  it,  but  nobody  said  or  thought  it  was  at  all  a  small 
pudding  for  so  large  a  family. — Dickens:  A  Christmas  Carol. 

HERCULES   AND  THE   GIANT 

The  giant  looked  down  from  the  height  of  his  great  eyes,  and 
(lerceiving  Hercules,  asked  who  he  was,  in  a  voice  that  resembled 


COMPOSITION — ORAL    AND   WRITTEN  23 

thunder.  The  hero  replied  in  a  voice  pretty  nearly  as  loud  as 
the  giant's  own,  that  he  was  Hercules,  and  that  he  had  come 
seeking  for  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides.  At  this  the  giant  fell 
into  a  great  tit  of  laughter,  and  Hercules,  becoming  a  little 
angry  at  the  giant's  mirth,  told  him  that  he  was  not  afraid  of 
the  dragon  with  the  hundred  heads. 

The  giant  roared  forth  anew  and  told  Hercules  that  he  was 
Atlas,  the  mightiest  giant  in  tlie  world,  and  that  he  held  the 
sky  upon  his  head.  Then  Hercules  asked  him  the  way  to  the 
garden  of  the  Hesperides,  where  he  wanted  to  get  three  of  the 
golden  apples  for  his  cousin  the  king.  Atlas  told  him  that  there 
was  nobody  but  himself  that  could  go  to  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides  and  gather  the  golden  apples ;  and  that  if  it  were  not 
for  this  little  business  of  holding  up  the  sky,  he  would  make  half 
a  dozen  steps  across  the  sea,  and  get  thetn  for  Hercules.  The 
hero  thanked  him  and  suggested  that  he  rest  the  sky  on  a  moun- 
tain. Atlas  shook  his  head  and  said  that  none  of  them  were 
quite  high  enougli ;  bvit  that  if  Hercules  were  to  stand  on  the 
summit  of  that  nearest  him,  his  head  would  be  almost  high 
enough. 

Hercules  asked  if  the  sky  were  very  heavy.  The  giant 
shrugged  his  shoulders  and  said  that  it  was  not  particularly  so  at 
first,  but  that  it  became  a  little  burdensome  after  a  thousand 
years.  Then  the  liero  asked  how  long  it  would  take  to  get  the 
golden  apples.  Atlas  said  that  it  would  be  done  in  a  few 
moments;  for  he  would  take  ten  or  fifteen  miles  at  a  stride, 
and  be  at  the  garden  and  back  again  before  Hercules'  shoulders 
would  begin  to  ache.  Then  Hercules  agreed  to  climb  the  moun- 
tain behind  him  and  relieve  him  of  his  burden. — Hawthorne: 
Wonder  Book.     (Adapted.) 


CHAPTER    II 


WHAT  TO   WRITE   ABOUT 


9.  How  to  Choose  a  Subject. — Among  the  considerations 
that  should  intlueuce  u.s  in  choosing  subjects  to  write  about 
are  the  following : 

1.  The  Writer'' s  Interest  in  His  Subject. — The  subject, 
whatever  it  may  be,  should  be  of  present  interest  to  the 
writer.  A  student  may  possibly  be  interested  in  "The 
growth  of  character,"  "Peace,"  "Greek  character  and 
art,"  and  topics  of  a  similar  nature;  but  if  he  is  not, 
ho  will  have  nothing  worth  saying  about  them,  and  he 
will  find  wi'iting  a  stupid  task.  Moreover,  to  write  on 
subjects  that  do  not  interest  one  is  a  kind  of  deceit: 
the  ideas  expressed  do  not  really  belong  to  the  writer; 
they  are  merely  invented  for  the  moment  or  stolen. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  electrical  machines,  or  sports,  or 
stories  of  adventure  or  hunting,  occupy  our  minds,  we 
shall  find  something  genuinely  interesting  to  say  about 
them.  This  is  not  true  merely  of  school  exercises  in  com- 
position; it  applies  to  all  literature.  Scott  wrote  histor- 
ical tales:  Dickens  wrote  about  men  and  women  in  the 
London  of  his  day.  Longfellow  wrote  poetry  and  Irving 
])ro.se.  Each  author  chose  the  material  and  the  form 
of  composition  that  interested  him  most.  No  good 
work  can  be  done  in  any  other  way.  We  should  not 
make  up  our  minrls  hastily,  however,  that  a  topic  is  dull. 
If  the  subject  set  for  a  theme  is  "Julius  Caesar,"  it  may 
at  first  oifer  nothing  to  us.  But  after  reflection,  we  may 
find  a  good  deal   to  say  about  Caesar's  first  campaign  in 

24 


WHAT   TO    WRITE    ABOUT  25 

Gaul.  If  we  happen  to  have  read  Shakspere's  play  of 
Julius  Caesar,  we  shall  have  another  reason  to  be  inter- 
ested in  the  subject.  Do  not  decide  on  mere  whim  that 
a  subject  is  dull ;  look  it  over  and  test  it  well  to  see  if  it 
has  not  some  suggestion  of  interest  for  you. 

2.  Tlie  Writer'' s  Previous  Information  about  His  Stihject. 
— Must  we  depend  entirely  on  ourselves  for  the  material 
we  use  in  writing?  Or  is  it  well  to  select  an  inter- 
esting topic  and  "read  up"  about  it?  Some  acquaintance 
with  the  subject,  surely,  is  necessary — the  more  the  better 
— and  in  many  cases  this  can  be  found  only  in  books. 
But  we  must  be  on  our  guard  lest  this  "reading  up" 
about  our  subject  results  in  a  mere  patchwork  of  ideas 
gathered  from  books.  What  we  write  should  be  our 
own.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  general  topic  were 
the  life  of  a  noted  man :  if  the  student  selected  some- 
one to  whom  his  attention  had  not  previously  been  called, 
he  would  be  forced  to  get  his  information  entirely  from 
books,  and  give  it  out  again  before  he  had  had  time  to 
make  it  his  own.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  remembered 
his  study  of  American  history,  and,  better  still,  had  read 
General  Grant's  Memoirs,  he  would  have  something  to 
start  with  in  writing  about  General  Grant.  Whatever 
further  reading  he  did  would  add  to  ideas  already  at 
home  in  his  mind.  The  writer  should  choose  a  sub- 
ject that  he  knows  something  about,  and  reading  on  the 
subject  should  supplement  his  own  ideas,  not  furnish  him 
all  his  matter. 

o.  Tlic  Question  of  Size. — The  untrained  writer  usu- 
ally thinks  that  the  larger  the  topic  the  more  there  will 
be  to  say  about  it.  As  a  rule,  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
smaller  and  simpler  the  topic,  the  easier  it  is  for  him  to 
find  related  ideas.  "Our  war  with  Spain"  would  puzzle 
an  experienced  writer,  if  he  had  to  treat  it  in  a  theme  of 
two  or  three  hundred  words.     He  would  find  "The  war 


26  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

in  the  Philippines"  somewhat  easier,  but  it  is  doubtful  if 
he  could  write  connectedly  even  on  this  part  of  the  ques- 
tion. Even  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay  would  be  large  enough 
for  a  short  paper.  For  the  same  reasons  we  should  reject 
such  subjects  as  the  following:  "Geysers,"  "Abraham 
Lincoln,"  "Manual  training,"  "Prohibition,"  "Longfel- 
low's poems.''  These  large  topics  may  suggest  subjects 
suitable  for  short  compositions,  but  in  their  present  form 
they  insure  failure. 

4.  Definite  Suhjerts  the  Best. — In  the  same  way,  a 
specific  or  definite  subject  is  preferable  to  an  abstract  or 
general  one.  It  is  always  easier  to  find  ideas  about  a  par- 
ticular object  than  about  a  class  of  objects.  1'he  noun 
"barn"  suggests  little  to  the  mind,  but  "My  father's  barn" 
may  call  up  many  memories.  Engines  are  too  numerous 
and  too  different  one  from  another  to  discuss  as  a  whole, 
but  "The  eight-wheeler  on  the  Panhandle,"  or  "The 
engine  of  a  threshing  machine,"  instantly  presents  a  pic- 
ture. Our  minds  deal  first  with  single  objects:  we  never 
see  "in  the  mind's  eye"  more  than  one  object  of  a  kind; 
we  never  see  a  class  of  objects.  This  statement  is  true  of 
all  kinds  of  subjects.  A  good  illustration  is  the  topic 
"Books";  few  of  us  could  find  anything  not  merely  silly 
to  say  about  books  in  general.  Even  if  we  chose  "The 
drama,"  or  "English  fiction,"  we  should  wonder  where  to 
begin ;  "Shakspero,"  or  "Irving,"  would  also  bewilder 
most  of  us;  but  "Shakspere's  Shylock,"  or  "Ichabod 
Crane's  courtship,"  suggests  definite  ideas. 

Two  bits  of  advice  suggest  themselves  from  this:  first, 
avoid  large  and  general  subjects,  or,  after  examination, 
choose  otdy  one  of  the  many  topics  contained  in  the  large 
subject.  If  your  subject  is  limited,  you  can  hope  to  treat  it 
connectedly  with  reasonable  thoroughness.  Secondly,  shape 
your  subject  with  somo  regard  to  the  space  at  yonr  dis- 
posal,    A  writer  can  measure  roughly  his  subject  before  he 


"WHAT   TO    AVRITE    ABOUT  27 

begins,  and  adapt  it  to  bis  own  needs.  For  example,  the 
topics  cited  above  are  clearly  unsuited  for  treatment  in 
two  pages,  but  "A  new  battleship"  might  be  described 
successfully  in  that  space.  The  subject  "An  electric  dray" 
might  be  treated  satisfactorily  in  one  page,  or  at  much 
greater  length,  as  the  writer  thought  best.  In  the  first 
case  he  would  conGne  himself  to  a  simple  description  of 
the  machine;  in  the  second,  he  might  add  an  explanation 
of  its  mechanical  possibilities  and  the  difficulties  that  pre- 
vent its  common  use.  Again,  "Our  navy,"  if  attempted  in 
a  short  theme,  would  result  in  a  few  scattering  remarks,  but 
a  torpedo  boat  could  be  described  in  a  page.  We  should 
estimate  in  advance  the  possibilities  of  any  subject,  and 
choose  one  that  suits  our  purposes. 

10.  Finding  Material  to  Write  About. — 1.  The  Report- 
er's Method. — The  general  advice  that  has  been  given 
about  the  selection  of  subjects  presupposes  that  the  stu- 
dent has  a  number  of  topics  in  mind,  or  that  his  instructor 
suggests  the  theme-subject.  The  student,  when  left  to 
himself,  is  often  puzzled  where  to  find  anything  to 
write  about;  all  subjects  have  fled  from  his  mind.  If  he 
is  to  enjoy  composition  and  get  benefit  from  it,  he  must 
cultivate  the  habit  of  finding  material  for  himself.  In 
this  he  can  not  do  better  than  to  follow  the  reporter's 
method.  The  editor  of  a  large  city  paper  sends  a  reporter 
to  gather  information  about  an  occurrence,  the  details  of 
which  the  reporter  proceeds  to  writeout  as  his  "story."  If 
he  is  to  be  a  successful  reporter,  he  will  also  find  subjects 
for  "stories"  on  his  own  account.  If  he  happens  to  hear  of 
an  accident  or  sees  a  fire  or  hears  an  interesting  lecture,  he 
will  immediately  take  notes,  and  later  write  out  his  news. 
A  good  reporter  is  constantly  alive  to  opportunities  for 
gathering  news,  no  matter  where  he  is  or  on  what  business 
he  is  engaged.  He  finds  in  apparently  dull  matters  sub- 
jects that  will  interest  the  readers  of  his  paper.     He  talks 


28  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETOKIC 

with  men  in  different  employments,  finds  out  what  is 
interesting  them,  and  from  the  odds  and  ends  thus  picked 
up  makes  a  readable  paragraph.  We  would  do  well  to 
cultivate  the  reporter's  habit  of  observation,  of  looking  for 
interesting  facts  in  the  everyday  life  about  us.  Never 
walk  down  a  busy  street  with  your  eyes  shut,  or  pay  a 
visit  to  a  new  scene  without  noting  all  that  strikes  you  as 
peculiar  or  important.  Learn  to  carry  a  mental  notebook 
for  future  reference,  and  if  this  is  not  enough,  jot  down 
notes  in  a  blank  book.  Thus  subjects  that  are  worth  writ- 
ing upon  will  spring  up  about  you  and  occupy  your  mind. 
A  visit  to  a  neighboring  factory,  a  few  minutes  spent  in  a 
busy  store,  the  erection  of  a  new  office  building,  a  day 
in  the  country — these  and  similar  opportunities  will  sug- 
gest ideas  for  composition. 

2.  Themes  about  Books. — Naturally  the  first  source  of 
ideas  is  the  life  going  on  about  us;  a  second,  and  scarcely 
less  important  source,  is  the  field  of  literature.  Books 
represent  life  at  secondhand,  it  is  true,  but  they  often 
give  us  a  better  understanding  of  it  than  we  should  he  able 
to  get  by  our.selves.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  book  which 
gives  us  nothing  to  think  about,  to  talk  about,  and,  hence, 
to  write  about,  is  not  worth  reading.  This  does  not  mean 
that  only  books  of  information  or  "deep"  books  should  be 
read.  Many  books  not  written  to  convey  facts  or  to  teach 
truths  may  yet  give  us  much  that  is  worth  thinking  a1)out 
if  we  read  them  intelligently.  Kipling's  Jungle  Books 
will  not  teach  us  much  about  natural  science,  but  they 
v.ill  give  us  sympathy  with  animals  and  a  keener  enjoy- 
ment of  wild  life.  Scott's  KeniJworth  should  not  be  read 
merely  for  the  history  it  contains;  that  could  be  gained 
more  quickly  from  a  short  history  of  England.  But  from 
8cott  we  may  get  a  picture  not  easily  forgotten  of  English 
life  in  the  stirring  times  of  Elizabeth. 

What  is  tlie  best  way  to  use  books  in  gathering  ideas  for 


WHAT   TO   WEITE    ABOUT  29 

writing?  When  a  student  is  asked  to  write  about  a  book 
that  has  interested  him,  he  is  likely  simply  to  "tell  the 
story."  That  is  one  of  the  least  profitable  tasks  he  could 
find.  It  is  very  hard  for  a  trained  writer  to  put  the  story 
of  a  book  containing  two  hundred  or  more  prhited  pages 
into  four  or  five  written  sheets  and  give  a  satisfactory  idea 
of  the  original.  But  the  worst  fault  with  this  kitid  of 
exercise  is  that  it  requires  little  of  the  writer  himself;  he 
tries  to  reproduce  as  much  of  the  book  itself  as  he  can, 
and  generally  in  the  author's  OAvn  words,  because  it  seems 
impossible  to  improve  the  words  and  sentences  of  the  book. 
Let  us,  then,  for  the  present,  exclude  from  our  subjects 
the  summary  of  an  entire  book. 

We  may,  however,  decide  to  summarize  an  interesting 
chapter  or  scene,  and  though  this  exercise  is  open  in  a 
degree  to  the  objection  stated  above,  it  is  far  more  likely 
to  be  successful.  In  a  few  paragraphs  a  good  idea  can 
be  given  of  the  casket  scene  in  the  Merchant  of  Venice^ 
or  of  Grand  Pre  as  described  in  Evangeline,  or  of 
the  last  fight  of  Uncas  in  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans.  A 
safer  method,  however,  is  for  the  reader  to  ask  himself : 
What  interests  me  most  in  that  book?  Is  it  the  plot?  Or 
a  certain  character?  Or  a  description  of  a  scene  in  the 
country?  Or  the  ideas  the  author  advances?  These  ques- 
tions once  answered,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  proceed 
with  the  subject;  the  student  can  then  state,  as  fully 
as  possible,  what  elements  were  found  interesting,  and 
explain  why  the  scene,  or  character,  or  plot  arouses 
interest. 

Some  interesting  subjects  suggested  by  books  may  call 
for  further  reading;  for  example:  "Are  Scott's  historical 
characters  true  to  history?"  "Was  Robinson  Crusoe's 
life  on  his  island  improbable?"  "Are  Longfellow's  In- 
dians in  Hiawatha  true  to  nature?"  These  topics  are 
most  profitable  because  they  demand  most  of  the  writer. 


30  COMPOSITION    VXD    RHETORIC 

In  writing  about  a  novel  a  more  imaginative  form  of 
subject  is  also  possible.  The  student  may  take  part  in 
the  composition  by  continuing  the  story  after  a  certain 
point  is  reached,  or  by  constructing  a  new  scene  in  which 
the  characters  of  the  story  appear.  This  will  give  a  good 
opportunity  to  write  conversation. 

3.  Material  from  Other  Studies. — The  study  of  his- 
tory, or  of  physical  geography,  or  of  plants  or  animals, 
even  the  study  of  Latin  or  German,  will  furnish  material 
for  thought  and  reading,  and  hence,  suggest  ideas  for 
writing.  All  the  subjects  that  are  studied  in  school 
should  be  made  useful  in  English  composition. 

4.  Material  from  JVeivspapers  and  Magazines. —  Most 
of  our  information  about  what  is  taking  place  in  the 
world  comes  from  newspapers  and  magazines.  The  facts 
and  ideas  here  gained  should  not  go  into  one  ear  and  out 
of  the  other;  they  shoukl  be  sifted,  and  important  topics 
which  have  been  glanced  at  in  the  newspapers  should  be 
pursued  in  tlie  more  serious  articles  of  the  magazines. 
The  Klondike  gold  fields,  the  Boer  war,  the  Russian  rail- 
road across  the  great  Siberian  plains,  the  Nicaragua  canal, 
the  Philippines  as  a  colony — these  and  many  other  similar 
topics  have  occupied  public  attention  during  the  last 
few  years.  Each  month  brings  new  questions,  that  are 
discussed  at  length  in  newspapers  and  magazines.  Every 
intelligent  person  wishes  to  inform  himself  on  such  mat- 
ters. For  arranging  and  sifting  the  information  thus  ob- 
tained, no  better  method  can  be  found  than  to  write  on 
topics  of  the  da3^ 

In  treating  contemporary  events,  certain  cautions  should 
be  heeded :  1,  Do  not  attempt  too  large  a  subject  (see  sec- 
tion 8,  3).  2.  Do  not  depend  on  one  source  of  informa- 
tion, but  read  as  many  reports  as  possible.  3.  Confine 
yourself  to  stating  the  facts  as  interestingly  and  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  without  giving  hasty  opinions.     4.   Seek 


WHAT   TO    WKITE    ABOUT  31 

to  show  the  real  importance  of  the  subject.     5.  Always 
give  your  sources  of  information.^ 

11.  Summary  of  Chapter. — 1.  The  important  test  of 
whether  a  subJcLt  is  a  proper  one  for  a  writer  is  his  inter- 
est in  it.  He  can  not  interest  others  when  he  himself  is 
not  interested,  or  when  he  has  only  a  pretended  interest. 
If,  after  genuine  effort  to  arouse  his  mind,  the  subject 
remains  distasteful,  he  snould  avoid  it. 

2.  A  good  subject  may  be  spoiled  by  attempting  to  treat 
it  in  too  limited  a  space.  Judge  beforehand  whether  you 
have  sufficient  information  about  it  and  suflBcient  space  in 
which  to  treat  it. 

3.  Avoid  general  and  abstract  topics,  such  as  war,  peace, 
science,  poetry,  and  the  like.  The  more  specific  and 
special  your  topic  is,  the  more  you  will  find  to  say  about  it. 

4.  Cultivate  observation;  find  interesting  topics  in  the 
events  of  the  day. 

5.  In  taking  a  subject  from  a  book,  beware  of  writing  a 
more  summary;  try  to  put  some  of  your  own  thoughts 
into  your  theme. 

6.  In  writing  draw  upon  the  knowledge  you  have  gained 
in  other  branches  of  your  school  work. 

7.  Make  your  reading  of  magazines  and  newspapers  of 
some  permanent  value  by  using  the  information  obtained 
as  material  for  themes. 

Exercise    II 

A.  Keep  a  notebook,  in  which  are  entered  each  day  at 
least  two  subjects,  with  brief  notes  of  what  you  would 
write  about  them.     Eead  the  topics  in  class  once  a  week. 


'Good  sources  for  such  articles  are  (among  others):  The  Youth's  Com- 
panion, Harper's  Weekly,  McOlure's  Maijazine,  The  Outlook,  The  Review  of 
Reviews.  More  serious  articles  may  be  found  in  The  Forum,  The  New  York 
Nation,  The  Century,  The  North  American  Review,  Sci-ibner's  Magazine,  Har- 
per's Monthly  and  The  Atlantic.  Some  of  these  magazines  should  be  found 
in  a  high  school  library. 


32 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


defend  your  choice  of  them,  and  state  the  probable  length 
of  the  themes  required  to  develop  them  properly. 

B.  "Write  a  paragraph  of  not  less  than  a  hundred  words 
on  some  subject  suggested  by  something  you  saw  to-day  on 
your  way  to  school. 

C.  From  the  following  list  of  subjects,  select  five  about 
which  you  could  write  a  theme  not  over  one  page  in 
length:^ 


1.  A  summer  camp. 

2.  The  boy  who  sits  next  to 

me. 
8.  An  intelligent  cat. 

4.  An  old  liouse. 

5.  A  ten-mile  walk. 

6.  What  is  a  cheque? 

7.  Why  birds  migrate. 

8.  A  windstorm. 

9.  Points  of  a  good  horse. 

10.  A  model  stock  farm. 

11.  A  country  railroad  station 

on  the  arrival  of  a  train. 

12.  How  to  make  roses  grow. 

13.  The  village  postoffice. 

14.  Driving  to  the  creamerj'. 

15.  My  favorite  historical  char- 

acter. 

16.  Tlie  value  of  a  scheol  gym- 

nasium. 

17.  Bill}-    Bones,    in    Treasure 

Isliuid. 

18.  What    '"manual   training" 

means. 

19.  The    conditions    necessary 

for  the   formation  of  a 
desert. 

20.  Where  we  spent  last  sum- 

mer. 


21.  A  day's  fishing. 
23.  Napoleon. 

How    our    governor    is 

elected. 
The  origin  of  ice-packs. 
How  seed  is  distributed. 
A  street-car  incident. 
Our  literary  society. 
The    circulation    of    t  h « 

blood. 
My  sensations  when  themes 

are  read. 
Dinner  on  the  farm. 
How  a  volcano  is  formed. 

32.  My  first  day  with  a  gun. 

33.  Tlie  points  of  a  good  bicycle. 

34.  How  the  heart  works. 
What  were  the  Crusades? 
Coal  mining. 
The  origin  of  underground 

caves. 

The   school  store  (descrip- 
tion). 

Thermometers. 

The    metric    system    of 
weights  and  measures. 

Tlie  liistory  of  Mowgli,  in 
the  Jungle  Book. 
42.  Baloo,  in  the  Jinigle  Book. 


23. 

24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 
31. 


35. 

3() 


39. 

40. 


'll 


»To  the  teacher:  Jn  this  list  and  in  .similar  lists  tliroughout  ihoboolt 
good  and  bad  subjects  are  uiiugled.     .See  also  Appendix  H. 


WHAT   TO    AVlilTE    ABOUT 


33 


48.  What  is  a  barometer? 

44.  Our  breathing  apparatris. 

45.  Maple  sugar  making. 

46.  Adventures  of  a  naturalist. 

47.  How  to  stuff  bird  skins. 

48.  Keeping  a  diary. 

49.  The   preparation  of    char- 

coal. 

50.  A  favorite  picture. 

51.  Is  hunting  cruel? 

53.  Bleaching  with  chlorine. 
58.  Why  plants  need  water. 

54.  La  Salle's  explorations. 

D.  What  objections  do  you 
jects? 

1.  The  winds. 

2.  Arctic  expeditions. 

3.  Foreign  missions. 

4.  Vacations. 

5.  Imagination. 

6.  Dreams. 

7.  Education. 

8.  War. 

E.  Modify  some  of  the  following  subjects  in  any  way 
that  will  enable  you  to  treat  them  interestingly  and 
adequately : 


55.  How  animals   prepare   for 

winter. 

56.  My  first  birthday  party. 

57.  My  friends  in  the  kitclien. 
5S.  In  the  garret. 

59.  Shall    we    liave    a    school 

paper? 
(iO.  Description  of  a  friend. 
Gl.  Rag,  the  Terrier. 

62.  An  exciting  race. 

63.  How  to  sail  a  boat. 

64.  A  clam  bake. 

65.  Catching  butterflies. 

find  to  the  following  sub- 

9.  Stories  of  adventure. 

10.  A  visit  to  New  York. 

11.  Athletics. 

12.  Poetry. 

13.  Presidents  of   the  United 

States. 

14.  The  inliabitants  of  Mars. 

15.  Cloud  scenerj'. 


1.  The  Indiana  gas  belt. 

2.  Evangeline. 

3.  Transportation. 

4.  Kipling's    animals    in  the 

Jungle  Book. 

5.  Standing  armies. 

6.  Flags. 

7.  American  colonies. 

8.  Queen  Elizabeth. 

9.  Abraham  Lincoln. 


10.  A  third  term  of  office  for 

the    President     of     the 
L'nited  States. 

11.  Horseless  carriages. 

12.  Bicj'cling. 

13.  The      influence     of      gun- 

powder. 

14.  The  steam  engine. 

15.  Photography. 


F.  From  the  books  read  in  school  during  the  previous 
term,  make  a  list  of  not  fewer  than  five  subjects  a])out 
each  of  which  you  could  write  three  pages. 


34 


COMPOSITION"   AND    RHETORIC 


G.  What  topics  now  being  discussed  in  the  daily  papers 
could  yon  Avrite  about?     How  would  you  treat  them? 

H.  A  list  of  subjects  of  present  interest  is  given  below. 
Select  the  one  about  which  you  know  most,  and  write  a 
short  theme  upon  one  division  of  the  whole  topic : 

The  Chicago  drainage  canal. 

How  our  town  is  governed. 

The  chief  industry  of  my 
town. 

The  political  divisions  of  our 
country. 

The  Nicaragua  canal. 

The  Philippines. 


How  to  prevent  railroad  ac- 
cidents. 

Wireless  telegraphy. 

How  the  states  in  the  mid- 
dle west  market  their  products. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands. 

What  is  meant  by  Greater 
New  York. 


CHAPTER    III 

BUILDING   THE  THEME 

12.  Different  Methods  of  Writing. — There  are  many 
ways  of  setting  about  the  labor  of  literary  composition. 
Every  writer  has  to  find  out  for  himself  what  method  is 
the  best  one  for  him  to  use.  Usually,  when  anyone  has 
decided  what  he  wishes  to  write  about  and  has  got  together 
in  his  mind  the  necessary  information  after  thinking  the 
matter  over  for  a  time  and  sorting  his  ideas  in  his  mind, 
he  takes  his  pen  and  paper  and  proceeds  to  write  a  few  sen- 
tences. When  he  comes  to  a  difiiculty,  he  stops  and 
thinks,  and  then  starts  afresh.  Sometimes  he  crosses  out 
part  of  what  he  has  done.  After  he  has  finished  this  rough 
draft,  he  takes  a  fresh  piece  of  paper  and  copies  the  best 
parts  of  what  he  has  written.  If  the  writer  has  had  a 
good  deal  of  practice  in  composition,  and  has  a  clear, 
orderly  mind,  this  method  may  succeed  well  enough, 
especially  if  he  takes  the  trouble  to  rewrite  a  number  of 
times.  But,  for  most  of  us,  especially  in  beginning  our 
work  in  composition,  this  is  a  poor  method, — wasteful  of 
time  and  energy,  and  unlikely  to  bring  out  all  we  have  to 
say.  A  better  method,  at  least  for  beginners,  will  be 
described  in  the  following  sections. 

13.  Preliminary  Work  upon  the  Theme  —  Notes.- — 
Instead  of  trying  to  write  out  at  once  a  complete  theme, 
the  first  step  is  to  make  notes.  The  writer  jots  down, 
quite  at  random,  a  few  words  to  describe  the  different 
facts  or  ideas  that  have  occurred  to  him.  These  notes 
need  not  be  expressed  in  complete  sentences ;  sometimes  a 

35 


36  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

single  word  or  a  brief  phrase  will  be  enough  to  describe 
a  number  of  ideas.  After  he  has  made  as  many  notes  as 
occur  to  him,  he  arranges  them  on  a  second  sheet  of  paper, 
this  time  rejecting  those  that  are  not  to  the  point,  filling 
out  those  that  are  incomplete,  and  expanding  the  broken 
phrases.     Let  us  take  an  example : 

General  Topic:  "  The  Behavior  of  Bh-ds." 

First  Form — Notes. 

Spring  morning ;  my  window  open.  I  had  been  to  the  theatre 
and  was  sleeping  late.  Heard  Robin  in  an  oak  in  back  yard;  no 
other  birds  about.  Our  yard  a  good  place  for  birds.  Came 
every  morning  for  two  weeks.  Listened  for  his  song  every  morn- 
ing when  I  awoke.  Song  became  more  restless  and  plaintive. 
One  day  I  heard  him  singing  gaily.  He  was  paying  court  to  a 
female  robin.  There  was  a  small  garden  of  sweet-peas,  pansies, 
nasturtiums  ,and  other  flowers  under  mj^  window.  I  was  spad- 
ing the  ground.  Both  birds  came  down  to  get  worms.  I 
watched  them  pull  at  the  long  angleworms.  Two  rival  robins 
came.  Angry  notes  from  the  first  robin.  The  female  did  not 
know  which  to  choose.  The  first  robin  fought  his  rivals ;  drove 
tliem  away.  His  prowess  won  him  a  mate.  I  was  interested 
in  the  pair.  The  next  morning  I  looked  out.  They  were 
flying  about  the  yard  looking  for  a  place  to  nest.  Tlie  female 
chose  an  old  apple  tree.  Several  trees  in  yard,  an  oak, 
a  willow,  two  or  three  apple  trees.  The  oak  was  nearest; 
two  rods  from  my  window.  Could  see  all  of  them  with 
my  opera  glass.  The  bird  was  unable  to  decide  between 
two  suitable  boughs.  Tried  another  tree,  the  old  pippin  tree; 
began  to  build.  Took  my  book  and  opera  glass  to  the  window ; 
watched  them  from  time  to  time.  She  abandoned  this  be- 
ginning. Finally  came  to  tlie  oak  wliere  she  had  first  met 
robin;  began  to  build.  Worked  very  liard;  brought  feathers; 
nuichmud;  had  a  large  lump  on  the  limb;  satin  it,  turning 
round  and  round  to  shape  it  with  her  breast.  Robin  at  first 
tried  to  help;  she  refused  liis  help.  Was  especially  scornful 
about  a  long  piece  of  string  he  brought.  He  put  it  in  nest  in 
her  absence;  she  canae  back,  twitched  it  out  angrily.  He  put 
it  in  again,  trying  to  conceal  it  with  feathers.  She  came  back, 
soon  found  it;  pulled  it  out.  Robin  flew  away  crestfallen.  She 
became  thinner.     Breast  almost  bare  from  >vorki/jg  on  the  nmd. 


BUILDING    THE    THEME  37 

Nest  at  last  finished ;  well-lined  with  wool  and  feathers.  Both 
well-pleased ;  later,  happiness  increased ;  Robin  circled  about  his 
mate,  who  sat  on  four  blue  eggs. 

On  examining  these  notes,  the  writer  may  find  that, 
although  he  lias  thought  about  the  subject  before  writing, 
he  has  not  succeeded  in  making  the  notes  thoroughly 
satisfactory.  In  the  first  place  details  which  do  not  belong 
to  the  story  are  included.  His  aim  is  to  tell  how  two  birds 
mated  and  built  their  nest.  The  fact  that  the  narrator  of 
the  story  slept  late  after  the  theatre  is  not  a  part  of  the 
subject.  In  the  second  jjlace,  details  are  not  arranged  in 
their  proper  order.  For  instance,  the  notes  on  the  yard, 
the  trees,  and  the  garden,  clearly  belong  together.  In 
trying  to  group  the  notes  in  logical  order  it  should  be 
noted  that  there  are  three  main  parts  of  the  story:  (1)  the 
place  of  observation, — the  window  and  the  garden;  (2) 
the  wooing;  (3)  the  building  of  the  nest.  With  this  sim- 
ple plan  in  mind  the  notes  may  be  rearranged,  omitting 
all  that  are  not  pertinent  to  the  subject : 

Second  Form — 

My  window  overlooked  yard  in  whicli  were  several  trees:  an 
oak,  about  two  rods  away;  a  willow;  two  or  three  ai^ple  trees, 
one  of  them  an  old  pippin,  farther  away ;  yard  a  good  place  for 
birds.  Could  watch  them  in  the  trees  with  opera  glass.  Beneath 
my  window  some  flower-beds  where  I  worked ;  birds  came  for 
worms;  I  could  watch  them  as  I  worked.  Every  morning 
for  two  weeks  I  heard  a  robin  singing  in  oak  tree ;  I  came 
to  listen  for  his  song  every  morning  when  I  woke.  His 
song  became  more  restless  and  plaintive.  One  day  I  lieard 
him  singing  gaily.  Looked  up  from  my  work  in  the  garden ; 
I  saw  that  he  was  paying  court  to  a  female  robin;  both 
in  the  oak.  Both  birds  came  down  to  get  worms.  I 
watched  them  pull  at  the  long  angleworms.  Two  rival 
robins  came.  Angry  notes  from  the  first  robin.  The  female 
did  not  know  which  to  choose.  The  first  robin  fought 
his  rivals;  drove  them  away.  His  prowess  won  him  a 
mate.  The  next  morning  I  .saw  the  pair  flying  about  the  yard 
looking  for  a  place  to  ne.st.     The  female  chose  an  old  apple  tree; 


215J65 


38  COMPOSITION"   AND    RHETORIC 

was  unable  to  deoide  between  two  suitable  boughs.  Tried 
another  tree,  the  old  pippin;  began  to  build.  She  abandoned 
this;  I  could  not  understand  why.  Finally  came  to  the  oak 
wliere  she  had  first  .met  Robin;  began  to  build;  worked  very 
hard;  brought  feathers;  much  mud.  Had  a  large  lump  of  mud 
on  the  limb;  then  sat  in  it,  turning  round  and  round  to  shape  it 
with  her  breast.  Robin  at  first  tried  to  help;  she  refused  his 
help;  was  especially  scornful  about  a  long  piece  of  string  he 
brought.  He  put  it  in  nest  in  her  absence;  she  came  back, 
twitched  it  out  angrily;  he  put  it  in  again,  trying  to  conceal  it 
with  a  feather.  She  came  back,  soon  found  it,  pulled  it  out 
with  considerable  damage  to  the  nest.  Robin  flew  away  crest- 
fallen. She  became  thinner;  breast  almost  bare  from  working 
in  the  mud.  Nest  at  last  finished;  well-lined  with  wool  and 
feathers.  Both  well-pleased ;  later,  happiness  increased ;  Robin 
circled  about  his  mate,  who  sat  on  four  blue  eggs. 

14.  Complete  Drafts. — The  next  step  is  to  write  out 
a  connected  draft.  Most  writers  find  it  advisable  to  do 
this  without  pausing  to  hunt  for  the  best  words,  or  to 
make  corrections.  It  is  easier  to  keep  the  mind  steadily 
oil  one  thing  at  a  time  than  to  do  two  things  at  once — to 
give  their  whole  attention,  first,  to  telling  the  story;  next, 
to  improving  it.  The  writing  out  will  result  in  something 
like  this: 

Third  Form — 

1.  My  window  overlooked  a  yard  in  which  were  several  trees: 
there  was  an  oak  about  two  rods  away;  somewliat  farther  otf 
was  a  willo\v  and  some  apple  trees,  among  them  a  pippin. 
C.  The  yard  was  a  good  place  for  birds.  3.  I  could  watch  them 
in  the  trees  with  my  opera  glass.  4.  Beneath  the  window  were 
some  flower-beds  wliere  I  often  worked;  here  birds  came  for 
worms;  and  I  could  watch  the  birds  in  tlie  trees  as  I  worked. 

T).  Every  morning  for  two  weeks  I  heard  a  robin  singing  in 
tlie  oak  tree.  6.  I  came  to  listen  for  his  song  every  morning 
when  I  woke.  7.  His  song  became  more  restless  and  plaintive. 
8.  One  day  I  heard  liim  singing  gaily.  9.  I  looked  up  from  my 
work  in  tiie  garden.  10.  I  saw  that  he  was  paying  court  to  a 
female  robin.  11.  Botli  birds  were  in  tlie  old  oak  tree.  12.  Wlien 
I  left  my  work  both  birds  came  down  to  get  worms.  Vi.  I 
watched  tlicm  pull  at  the  long  angleworms.      14.  Two  riv;il  rob- 


BUILDIXG   THE   THEME  39 

ins  came.  15.  The  robin  who  had  been  first  in  the  field  uttered 
angry  notes.  16.  The  female  did  not  know  which  to  choose. 
17.  The  first  I'obin  fought  his  rivals,  and  after  a  brave  fight 
drove  them  away.  18.  His  prowess  won  him  a  mate.  19.  The 
next  morning  I  saw  the  pair  flying  about  the  yard  looking  for  a 
place  to  nest.  20.  The  female  chose  an  old  apple  tree,  but  was 
unable  to  decide  between  two  suitable  boughs.  21.  Then  "she 
went  to  the  old  pippin  and  began  to  build.  22.  She  soon 
abandoned  this ;  I  could  not  understand  why.  23.  She  finally 
came  to  the  oak  where  she  had  first  met  Robin,  and  began  to 
build.  24.  She  worked  very  hard,  bringing  feathers  and  large 
quantities  of  mud.  25.  When  she  had  a  large  lump  of  mud  on 
the  limb,  she  sat  on  it,  turning  round  and  round  to  shape  it  with 
her  breast.  26.  At  first  Robin  tried  to  help,  but  his  offers  of 
help  were  rejected  by  his  mate.  27.  She  was  especially  scorn- 
ful about  a  long  piece  of  string  he  brought.  28.  He  put  it  in  the 
nest  in  her  absence ;  she  came  back  and  twitched  it  out  angrily. 
29.  He  put  it  in  again,  trying  to  conceal  it  with  a  feather ;  but 
she  came  back  and  found  it,  and  pulled  it  out  with  considerable 
damage  to  the  nest.  30.  Robin  fievv  away  crestfallen.  31.  She 
became  thinner  and  thinner ;  her  breast  was  almost  bare  from 
working  on  the  mud.  32.  At  last  the  nest  was  finished ;  it  was 
well-lined  with  wool  and  feathers.  38.  Both  birds  were  well- 
pleased.  34.  Their  happiness  was  increased  a  few  days  later; 
and  Robin  circled  singing  round  his  mate,  who  sat  on  four  blue 
eggs. 

Looking  over  this  draft,  it  may  be  seen  that,  although  it 
tells  a  connected  story,  there  are  many  ways  in  which  it 
can  be  improved.  Sentence  9  can  be  reduced  to  a  phrase, 
"looking  up  from  my  work  in  the  garden" ;  this  phrase  will 
then  connect  sentences  8  and  10.  Sentence  11  also  may 
become  a  phrase,  "in  the  old  oak  tree."  In  sentence  31 
the  pronoun  "she"  has  no  antecedent.  In  sentence  22 
the  second  part  should  be  more  closely  connected  with  the 
first  part;  thus:  "for  some  reason  which  I  could  not 
understand,  she  soon  abandoned  this."  But  the  most 
frequent  faults  are  repetition  of  words,  and  lack  of  con- 
nectives between  the  sentences.  For  instance,  in  sen- 
tences 3  and  4,  "birds,"  "trees,"  and  "worked,"  occur 


40  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

several  times;  and  in  sentences  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  "song'-' 
and  "singing."  Tiiere  should  be  connectives  between 
sentences  6  and  7;  13  and  14: ;  14  and  15;  15  and  IC; 
1()  and  17.  To  remedy  such  faults  of  repetition,  and  lack 
of  connection,  wo  make  a  last  trial* 

The  Final  Copi/ — 

1.  My  window  overlooked  a  j^avd  in  wliich  were  several  trees; 
there  was  an  oak  about  two  rods  away;  somewhat  farther  ott 
was  a  willow  and  some  apple  trees,  among  them  a  pippin. 
2.  The  yard  was  a  good  place  for  birds.  3.  I  could  watch  them 
in  the  trees  with  my  opera  glass.  4.  Moreover,  beneath  the  win- 
dow were  some  flower-beds  where  I  often  worked ;  here  birds 
came  for  worms,  and  I  could  watch  them  as  I  tended  my  garden. 
5.  Every  morning  for  three  weeks  I  heard  a  robin  singing  in  the 
oak  tree.  G.  I  came  to  listen  for  him  when  I  woke.  7.  As 
time  went  on  his  song  ))ecame  more  restless  and  plaintive. 
■S.  One  day  I  heard  him  singing  gaily,  and  looking  up  from  my 
work  in  the  garden  I  saw  that  he  was  paying  court  to  a  female 
robin  in  the  old  oak  tree.  9.  When  I  went  away  both  birds 
came  down  to  get  worms,     10.  Presently  two  rival  robins  came. 

11.  The  bird  who  had  been  first  in  the  field  uttered  angry  notes. 

12.  Evidently  the    female    did    not  know    which    to    choose. 

13.  Finally,  the  first  robin  fought  his  rivals,  and  after  a  brave 
contest  drove  them  away.     14.  His  prowess  won  him  a  mate. 

I.").  The  next  morning  I  saw  the  pair  flying  about  the  yard 
looking  for  a  place  to  nest.  16.  The  female  chose  an  old  apple 
tree,  but  was  unable  to  decide  between  two    suitable  boughs. 

17.  Then  she  went  to  the  old  pijipin  and  began  to  build  her  nest. 

18.  However,  for  some  reason  which  I  could  not  understand,  she 
soon  abandoned  this.  19.  Finally  she  came  to  the  oak  where 
.she  Iiad  first  met  Robin,  and  again  began  to  build.  20.  Sl.e 
workeil  very  hard,  bringing  feathers  and  large  quantities  of 
imid.  21.  Wiien  she  had  collected  a  large  lump  of  mud  on  the 
liinli  she  sat  on  it.  turning  round  and  round  to  shape  it  with  her 
breast.  22.  At  first  Robin  tried  to  hcdp,  but  his  offers  of  aid 
were  rejected  by  his  mate.  She  was  esi)ecially  scornful  about  a 
long  piece  of  string  he  brought  l>er.  23.  He  put  it  in  the  nest  in 
lier  ab.sence,  but  when  she  returned,  she  twitched  it  out  angrilj'. 
24.  Still  Robin  persevered,  and,  putting  it  in  again,  tried  to  con- 
ceal it  witli  ;i  fi-ather.     2.1.  But  his  mate  soon  found  it  and  again 


BUILDING   THE    THEME  41 

pulled  it  out,  this  time  doing  considerable  damage  to  the  nest. 
26.  At  this,  Robin  flew  away,  crestfallen.  27.  As  the  work  went 
on,  the  female  became  thinner  and  thinner;  her  breast  was 
almost  bare  from  working  in  the  mud.  28.  At  last  the  nest  was 
finished;  it  was  well-lined  with  wool  and  feathers.  29.  Both 
birds  were  much  pleased.  30.  Some  weeks  later  their  happiness 
was  increased;  and  Robin,  singing,  circled  round  his  mate,  who 
sat  on  four  blue  eggs. 

15.  A  Second  Subject. — Let  iis  now  try  a  more  difficult 
subject,  one  where  we  can  not  go  out  and  set  down  imme- 
diately our  impressions,  but  where  we  must  rely  solely  on 
what  Ave  can  remember : 

General  Subject :  "My  First  Night  in  a  Moki  Village." 

First  Form — 

Desert  country,  mesas, '  caiions;'  went  up  bridle'path  to  vil- 
lage. Children;  dogs ;  ate  supper  sitting  on  floor ;  room  white- 
washed. Village  looked  like  the  rocks  it  was  on.  One  story 
rising  above  another.  Entered  by  ladders  through  roof.  First 
floor  had  door.  It  was  a  Moki  village.  Had  come  a  hundred 
miles  across  the  plains  to  see  the  snake-dance.' 

[These  notes  had  just  been  Avritten  Avhen  the  door 
opened,  and  Jack  came  in.  The  talk  soon  drifted  to 
experiences  in  the  West.] 

"What  did  you  like  best  out  there?"  he  asked. 

"Oh,  theMokis." 

"Is  it  hot  there'?"' 

"Yes,  of  course." 

"How  far  from  the  railroad?" 

"A  hundred  miles  by  pony,  and  through  sand  thafs  baked  in 
the  sun.  There's  nothing  growing  but  sage-brush,  soap-weed, 
and  a  few  cedars." 

"No  gras.s?" 

"Very  little.  Wlien  we  got  near  the  Mokis  we  found  some 
corn,  but  it  looked  puny  and  yellow." 

"It  must  be  a  dreadful  country.     No  water?" 

"Not  worth  mentioning.  But  that's  not  so  different  from 
other  places  on  the  plains.  The  Moki  village  itself  was  the 
really  interesting  thing,  perched  "way  up  on  a  cliff,  with  a  deep 

» If  you  are  not  familiar  with  tliese  word.s,  look  tliem  up  in  a  dictionary. 


42  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

valley  under  it.  You  go  across  the  desert  day  after  day,  and  at 
last  you  see  something  that  looks  like  queer-sliaped  rocks. 
When  you  get  up  to  it,  you  see  that  it  is  a  Moki  village.  You 
know  how  they  build,  of  course?" 

"Yes,  I  learned  that  in  school." 

"It  was  near  sunset  when  we  came  in  sight  of  the  village. 
The  bridle  path  that  led  into  the  village  was  steep,  and  hard  on 
the  ponies.  There  were  a  lot  of  yelping  dogs  and  naked  brown 
children  there." 

Let  us  compare  this  conversation  with  onr  notes.  AVe 
see  at  once  that  what  we  had  written  down  is  very  unlike 
the  talk  with  Jack.  In  conversation  we  naturally  try  to 
describe  definite  objects,  instead  of  making  genertil 
remarks.  We  are  sure  that  the  talk  was  much  less  dull 
than  the  notes.  Accordingly,  we  write  out  new  notes, 
trying  to  remember  the  conversation,  and  adding  such 
details  as  occur  to  us: 

Second  Foviit — 

Country  a  desert  with  flat-topped  mesas,  deep  canons,  little 
water.  A-  few  cedars,  sage-brush,  soap-weed,  thin  grass.  Had 
come  a  hundred  miles  through  desert ;  sand  shining  with  heat, 
blue  sky  above,  clear  air.  Late  afternoon  saw  something  to  tlu; 
southwest,  standing  out  from  tlie  ]mesas,  looked  like  rocks;  it 
was  the  pueblo.     Up  steep  footpath,  came  upon  tlie  village. 

Mokis  a  tribe  of  Indians;  were  here  just  the  same  when 
Columbus  discovered  America.  Have  never  been  Christianized 
Keep  their  old  worsliip  of  the  sun;  famous  for  their  snake-dance. 
Have  preserved  their  old  liabits  of  life.  Houses  [^built  so  that 
the  flat  roofs  of  the  stories  rise  like  steps:  first  one,  a  single 
story ;  next  one,  two  stories ;  third  one,  three  stories.  Near  the 
pueblo  several  corrals,  wliere  are  kept  animals, — burros,  ponies, 
goats,  eacli  kind  separate.  Children  have  fun  with  the  burros 
when  put  in  corral  at  night. 

(luide  took  us  to  his  liou.se,  one  room;  looked  out  on  a  street 
wliere  queer  little  brown  babies  played.  Women  grinding  corn 
on  grinding  stones.  Room  whitewashed  ;  dolls  representing  the 
gods  of  rain  and  thunder  hung  on  walls.  No  chairs  or  table. 
Sat  flat  on  floor  to  eat  supper, — tea,  corn-cakes,  bacon. 

"Went  on  street;  many  people;  women  seen  through  doors, 
grinding,  stewing  something  in  big  kettles  at  the  fire;  children 


BUILDING    THE    THEME  43 

naked.  Young  girls  with  hair  done  up  in  queer  plaits  at  the  sides 
of  their  heads.  Went  into  goto  bed;  rolled  up  in  blanket; 
woman  was  grinding  corn;  body  moved  up  and  down;  sang. 
Outside,  people  rolled  in  blankets  lay  down  on  roof  for  the  night. 
Thought  of  the  long  years  they  had  lived  here  shut  out  from 
the  world.  Went  to  sleep.  Wakened  at  three  in  the  morning 
by  the  sound  of  the  young  men  chanting  announcement  of  the 
snake-dance. 

This  time  Ave  have  been  able  to  recollect  many  interest- 
ing facts  about  the  journey  across  the  plains,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  village,  and  the  Indian  inhabitants  of  the  place. 
Evidently,  these  notes  are  not  yet  orderly  in  arrangement. 
Perhaps  in  making  the  first  connected  draft  it  would  be 
well  to  begin  with  the  general  information  about  the 
Mokis,  and  follow  with  the  story  of  the  visit  to  their  vil- 
lage: 

Third  Form — 

1.  Among  the  Indians  of  America,  no  tribe  has  kept  its 
ancient  customs  more  pure  than  the  Moki  Indians  of  Arizona. 
3.  They  are  now  what  they  were  when  the  Spaniards  came  to 
America.  3.  They  are  untouched  by  the  people  living  around 
them.  4.  They  still  keep  their  ancient  religion  and  their  old 
way  of  building.  5.  Their  houses  are  of  stone  covered  with 
adobe.  6.  These  have  tiat  roofs.  7.  The  first  house  is  built  one 
story  high;  the  second,  two  stories;  the  third,  three;  so  that  the 
flat  roofs  rise  like  steps.  8.  Formerly  none  of  them  had  doors 
but  were  entered  by  ladders  through  holes  in  the  roofs. 
9.  Now,  however,  the  first  stories  have  doors,  but  the  second  and 
third  are  still  entered  by  means  of  ladders.  10.  The  country 
about  is  a  desert,  with  lofty  flat-topped  mesas,  deep  caiions,  and 
very  little  water.  11.  In  the  sand  grow  occasional  cedars,  and 
there  is  sage-brush,  soap-weed,  and  some  thin  grass.  13.  We 
had  come  across  a  hundi'ed  miles  of  desert  .sands  on  our  ponies, 
under  a  cloudless  sky;  everything  shimmered  with  heat. 
13.  But  we  were  willing  to  take  this  hard  journey,  in  order 
to  see  the  strangest  of  Indian  dances,  the  snake-dance.  14.  It 
was  late  afternoon.  15.  The  guide  jjointed  out  to  the  south- 
west some  rock-like  projections.  IG.  The  air  was  very  clear. 
17.  We  could  see  them  distinctly.  18.  They  looked  strangely 
like  the  rocks  behind  them.     19.  The  path  climbed  I'p  steeply,  a 


44  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

mere  bridle  path,  which  presently  brought  us  to  the  village. 
20.  Dogs  came  out  and  barked  at  us;  a  crowd  of  children  came 
out  and  stared  at  us.  21.  We  dismounted  in  front  of  the  guide's 
liouse.  22.  We  went  in  and  found  ourselves  in  a  single  room. 
2;5.  It  was  whitewashed ;  on  the  walls  hung  dolls,  representing 
the  gods  of  thunder  and  of  rain.  24.  There  were  no  beds,  chairs, 
or  tables.  25  At  one  side  stood  grinding-stones,  and  at  the  back 
was  a  fireplace.  26.  We  ate  supper  sitting  flat  on  the  floor. 
27.  It  consisted  of  thin  cakes  of  meal,  called  "pa^^er  bread,"  tea, 
and  fried  bacon.  28.  Then  we  went  out  to  see  the  town. 
20.  The  street  was  swarming  with  people.  30.  Babies  plaj'ed, 
toddling  up    and    down    the  ladders;    dogs  were  everywhere. 

31.  The  doors  were  open ;  we  could  look  in  and  see  the  women 
grinding  corn  or  making  bread  or  tending  kettles  at  the  fire. 

32.  On  the  flat  liouse-tops  women  moved  about  at  their  work. 
83.  Girls  with  their  hair  arranged  in  queer  dish-shaped  plaits  at 
the  sides  of  their  heads  gathered  in  groups  to  gossip.  34.  Out- 
side in  the  corrals  the  boys  were  bringing  in  the  ponies,  goats, 
and  burros,  putting  each  kind  of  animal  in  its  own  pen. 
35.  Then,  from  the  populous  town  came  a  crowd  of  brown  chil- 
dren, and  poured  into  the  corral  with  the  patient  little  burros. 
3G.  They  climbed  upon  them,  petted  them,  teased  them,  poked 
them  and  pulled  them  with  shouts  of  delight.  37.  In  the  west 
the  sun  had  set  behind  the  movmtain;  the  valley  beneath  us  lay 
in  shadow.  38.  So  it  had  been  centuries  ago.  and  so  had  sucli 
people  lived  hei'e  in  just  tlie  same  way;  tliey  had  not  been 
changed  by  the  people  around  them.  39.  At  length  I  went  in  to 
go  to  bed.  40.  I  wrapped  myself  in  my  blanket  and  lay  down 
on  the  floor.  41.  The  door  stood  open.  42.  Outside  I  heard 
movements.  43.  People  wrapped  themselves  in  their  blankets 
and  lay  down  to  sleep  on  the  roof  under  my  Avindow. 
44.  Within  the  room  a  woman  was  grinding  corn  for  breakfast; 
lier  body  swayed  back  and  forth  as  she  crooned  a  song.  45.  In 
spite  of  the  .strange  surroundings  I  was  soon  fast  asleep.  46.  But 
it  did  not  seem  long  befoi-e  I  was  awakened  bj^  the  sound  of  a 
cliant.  47.  It  was  three  in  the  morning,  and  the  young  men 
were  making  their  rounds,  announcing  the  great  snake-dance. 

This  form  makes  a  connected  account.  It  is  not,  how- 
over,  entirely  satisfactory.  In  the  first  place,  tlie  story 
does  not  begin  promptly;  in  attempting  to  tell  where  and 
why  the  events  happened,  we  have  made  too  many  general 


-BUILDING   THE  THEME  45 

remarks  on  the  Indians  and  their  history.  This  seems 
dull,  and  probably  the  reader  already  knows  these  facts. 
Would  it  not  be  better  to  describe  exactly  what  we  saw? 
We  shall  then  convey  all  this  information  in  a  more  inter- 
esting form.  For  example :  If  we  describe  the  houses,  we 
shall  not  have  to  talk  about  Moki  houses  in  general. 
This  description  of  the  houses  could  be  inserted  after  sen- 
tence 21,  where  we  stand  in  front  of  the  guide's  house. 
We  can  do  without  the  statement  about  the  simple  cus- 
toms of  the  Mokis,  because  if  we  describe  their  manner  of 
life  the  reader  can  see  for  himself  that  their  customs  are 
simple.  This  cuts  out  the  entire  introduction.  We  shall 
begin,  then,  with  the  first  sight  of  the  village,  sen- 
tence 14. 

Further  on  looking  at  the  separate  sentences,  beginning 
f.t  that  point,  we  notice  a  number  of  places  where  improve- 
n^cnts  can  be  made.  Sentence  IG  can  be  reduced  to  a 
phrase,  "through  the  clear  air,"  and  joined  to  the  follow- 
ing sentence.  There  is  repetition  of  words  in  sentence 
30.  Sentence  21  should  be  followed  by  a  description  of  the 
exterior  of  the  houses,  as  noted  above.  Sentences  24  and 
25  can  be  combined,  for  they  deal  with  the  same  topic, — 
the  furnishings  of  the  room.  We  passed  too  abruptly 
from  the  subject-matter  of  25  to  that  of  2G:  there  should 
be  some  word  of  connection  between  them.  The  follow- 
ing sentence, '27,  could  easily  be  reduced  to  a  relative 
clause  and  joined  to  26.  The  first  statement  in  sentence 
31  could  be  reduced  to  a  phrase,  "through  the  open 
doors."  In  sentence  35,  the  thought  is  not  fully 
expressed ;  for  the  troop  of  boys  reminded  one  of  a  swarm 
of  bees.  This  idea  might  well  be  inserted  in  the  sentence, 
as  follows:  "from  the  town  came  a  swarm  of  brown  boys, 
like  bees  from  a  hive."  There  is  an  unpleasant  repetition 
of  words  in  sentence  36.  In  sentence  38  the  last  clause 
might  be  changed  to  a  participial  phrase,  "unchanged  by 


46  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

the  people  around  tliem."  Considering  the  fact  that 
there  were  uo  beds  to  go  to,  sentence  39  needs  explanation 
or  revision.  In  41,  42,  and  43,  words  are  wasted;  the 
idea  conld  be  expressed  better  in  one  or  two  sentences 
instead  of  three.  If  %ye  carry  the  narrative  into  the 
second  day,  as  is  done  by  sentences  46  and  47,  we  shall 
find  uo  place  to  stop.  Evidently  these  two  sentences 
should  be  omitted.  Thus  the  theme  w^ould  treat  a  defi- 
nite series  of  events — a  first  experience  in  a  Moki  village — 
beginning  with  the  climb  to  the  village,  and  ending  with 
the  moment  of  goiiig  to  sleep.  Eevising  in  this  way,  we 
secure  the  following  form: 

Fourth  Form — 

It  was  late  afternoon  when  our  ponies  turned  up  the  ti'ail. 
Behind  us  lay  a  hundred  miles  of  desert  sand  shimmering  in  the 
sun,  varied  with  sage-brush,  soap-weed,  or  an  occasional  pine;  in 
front  rose  the  clitfs  where  for  centuries  unknown  had  been 
perched  the  jiueblos  of  the  Moki  Indians.  Tlirough  tlie  clear  air 
we  could  see  these  pueblos,  strangely  like  the  rocks  behind  them. 
Up,  up  the  trail  we  went  until  a  sudden  turn  brought  us  upon 
the  village.  A  crowd  of  puppies  barked ;  queer  brown  children 
stared  at  us  as  we  dismounted.  "We  found  ourselves  before  what 
looked  like  a  small  flat-topped  house,  one  story  in  height,  built 
of  stone  and  covered  with  adobe.  Behind  rose  a  similar  house, 
as  if  built  upon  it,  and  behind  that  another;  so  that  their  roofs 
rose  like  steps.  After  our  long  journej',  not  even  the  streets  of 
a  ^loki  village  could  tempt  us  until  we  had  eaten  and  rested. 
Accordingly  we  went  into  the  house.  It  consisted  of  one  room, 
neatly  whitewashed,  the  walls  ornamented  with  dolls  represent- 
ing the  gods  of  rain  and  of  thunder.  There  was  a  stone  for  grind- 
ing corn,  and  a  fireplace,  but  no  beds,  tables,  or  chairs.  And  so 
we  sat  on  the  floor  to  eat  supper,  wliich  consisted  of  thin  corn- 
cakes,  called  paper-bread,  tea,  and  bacon.     (Unfinished.)* 

This  seems  to  be  an  elaborate  process  to  go  through 
with  to  obtain  such  small  results.  In  both  eases,  after 
two  sets  of  notes  and  two  complete  drafts,  we  have  only  a 


"Complete  the   form,  making  the  improvements    iudicated,  auU  such 
Others  as  occur  to  you. 


BUILDING    THE    THEME  47 

short  theme.  Must  every  good  writer  take  all  this  trouble 
when  he  undertakes  to  write?  As  was  said  in  section  12 
of  this  chapter,  skilled  writers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  make  four 
drafts.  Even  very  careful  writers,  after  sufficient  experi- 
ence content  themselves  with  but  one  set  of  notes,  and 
sometimes  but  one  complete  draft,  thus  reducing  the  proc- 
ess to  two  parts.  The  complete  draft,  however,  is  often 
rewritten  a  number  of  times.  Real  excellence  in  writ- 
ing, as  in  any  art,  comes  only  through  the  willingness 
to  take  infinite  pains.  Probably  the  novel  or  poem  you 
skim  through  so  easily  was  written  three,  four,  or  even 
five  times  before  it  went  to  the  printer.  Most  of  us  think 
in  a  disorderly,  helter-skelter  fashion,  and  until  we  exam- 
ine our  ideas  as  they  appear  on  paper,  we  can  not  tell 
where  they  really  belong,  or  whether  they  belong  to  the 
theme  at  all.  The  preliminary  drafts,  then,  are  a  help  in 
straightening  out  our  thoughts.  The  slow  work  of  mak- 
ing notes  gradually  trains  the  mind  to  arrange  ideas,  and 
if  the  student  learns  in  tin's  way  to  think  clearly  and 
logically,  he  will  gain  something  far  more  important  than 
the  power  to  write. 

After  a  few  months  of  practice  in  theme  work,  a  stu- 
dent should  be  able  to  do  away  with  the  first  form.  One 
preliminary  plan  should  be  sufficient.  But  he  can  hardly 
expect,  if  he  wants  to  do  better  than  commonplace  work, 
to  dispense  with  the  third  form. 

16.  Titles.^ — Every  theme  should  receive  a  title,  which 
should  stand  at  the  head  of  the  first  page.  It  makes 
little  difference  whether  a  writer  gets  his  title  first  and 
then  plans  his  work,  or  finds  the  title  after  the  comple- 
tion of  his  composition.  But  we  should  understand 
clearly  that  the  title  and  the  subject  are  not  necessarily 


>  Titles  should  be^vritten  In  Italics  or  inclosed  between  quotation  marks. 
The  first  word  and  all  the  important  words  of  a  title  should  begin  with 
capital  letters. 


48  RHETOKIC    AXD    COMPOSITION 

the  same  thing.  The  subject  may  be  so  phrased  as  to  make 
a  good  title,  but  as  a  rule  any  complete  statement  of  the 
subject  is  too  broad  to  be  used  as  a  title.  The  title  is  the 
special  name  which  an  author  gives  to  his  treatment  of 
the  subject.  Thus,  from  the  general  subject  of  a  Euro- 
pean trip,  we  may  derive  a  number  of  titles,  as,  "From 
Edinburg  to  Loudon  on  Wheel,"  or,  "How  I  Saw  Paris," 
or,  "Six  AVeeks  in  Switzerland."  The  selection  of  a  good 
title  is  important,  because  by  means  of  the  title  the 
writer  marks  out  the  field  of  his  composition,  and  also 
engages  the  attention  of  the  reader. 

In  the  first  place,  a  title  sliould  be  brief.  Before  this 
century,  authors  frequently  gave  long  titles  even  to  short 
pamphlets,  endeavoring  to  enumerate  all  matters  treated 
in  the  work;  such,  for  example,  is  Bunyau's  fidl  title  for 
his  allegory: 

"The  Pilgrim's  Progress  from  this  world  to  that  which  is  to 
come,  delivered  under  the  similitude  of  a  Dream,  whereiu  is  dis- 
covered tlie  manner  of  his  setting  out,  his  dangerous  journey, 
and  safe  arrival  at  the  desired  coimtry." 

A  modern  writer  will  name  a  long  work  by  a  short  title, 
as,  "Forty-One  Years  in  India,"  or,  "The  Discovery  of 
America." 

A  title  should  be  clear,  not  misleading.  When  vre  read 
in  a  newspaper,  "The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents,"  as  the 
heading  to  an  account  of  the  destruction  of  fish  by  a  flood, 
we  are  uselessly  deceived.  Again,  "Charity"  is  a  vague 
title  for  a  magazine  article.  The  reader  can  not  guess 
whether  what  follows  is  to  be  an  account  of  modern 
methods  of  distributing  relief  to  the  poor,  or  a  sermon. 
A  good  title  should,  as  far  as  possible,  answer  the  ques- 
tion, What  is  the  article  about? 

To  make  the  title  brief  and  clear  is  not  enough ;  the 
author  must  also  consider  its  interest.  Will  it  draw 
attention  to  what  is  to  follow  and  stimulate  people  to  read 


BUILDING    THE    THEME  49 

further?  "The  Light  That  Failed,'-  is  an  interesting 
title,  much  better,  for  instance,  than,  "The  Story  of  a 
Man  Who  Became  Blind."  "Treasure  Island"  tempts 
our  curiosity,  while  "My  Adventures  in  Early  Life"  does 
not.  What  has  been  said  in  the  previous  chapter  about 
the  value  of  specific  subjects  is  true  also  of  titles.  A  stu- 
dent who  gives  "Fishing"  as  his  title  for  the  story  of  a 
day's  sport  is  sure  to  discourage  anyone  from  looking 
beyond  the  title.  "How  I  Caught  a  Two-pound  Bass," 
may  tempt  the  reader  to  go  on.  Try  to  interest  your  reader 
by  the  title  of  your  composition. 

In  seeking  for  an  entertaining  title,  do  not  select  one 
that  is  merely  sensational.  A  sensational  title  is  decep- 
tive, and  it  is  cheap;  it  classes  the  work  Avith  the  writing 
of  superficial  and  vulgar  writers.  Many  sensational  titles 
may  be  seen  in  the  headlines  of  the  daily  press ;  e.g.: 
"From  Jail  to  War,"  "Uncle  Sam  Lets  Loose  the  Dogs 
of  War,"  "No  Cross,  No  Crown." 

Exercise    III 

A.  Find  titles  that  will  show  how  you  can  use  the  fol- 
lowing subjects: 

1.  One  reason  why  high-school  and  college  students  like  foot- 
ball is  because  it  is  a  strictly  amateui-  game. 

3.  A  description  of  the  view  seen  from  tbe  schoolroom  win- 
dow. 

3.  A  description  of  a  small  boy  looking  at  a  baseball  game 
through  a  crack  in  the  fence. 

4.  A  visit  to  a  coal  mine. 

5.  The  growth  and  cultivation  of  the  tea  plant. 

6.  Statistics  show  that  during  the  past  year  many  more  ac-ci- 
dehts  have  resulted  from  bicycling  than  from  football. 

7.  A  description  of  the  house  j'ou  were  born  in. 

8.  A  characteristic  feature  of  London  Life  in  the  eighteenth 
century  was  the  coffeehouse. 

9.  A  visit  to  the  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing  in  Wash- 
ington, to  see  the  process  of  making  bank-notes. 


50 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


10.  The  use  of  gunpowder  had  a  powerful  influence  in  making 
society  democratic,  for  it  rendered  the  knight,  formerly  superior 
in  battle  on  account  of  his  expensive  armor  and  equipment,  of 
no  more  value  than  men  of  inferior  rank. 

11.  A  description  of  the  day  before  Christmas  in  the  toy 
department  of  a  big  store. 

13.  Many  students  who  would  not  think  of  doing  anything 
dishonorable  outside  of  school  seem  not  to  be  ashamed  of  cheat- 
ing in  examinations. 

13.  An  account  of  the  phases  through  which  a  raindrop  may 
pass. 

14.  An  account  of  the  famous  fight  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville, 
in  Tennyson's  ballad.  The  Revenge. 

15.  A  description  of  the  home  of  Katrina  Van  Tassel. 

16.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  lakes  may  become 
extinct. 

17.  Certain  facts  prove  that  spring  water  has  its  origin  in  rain. 

B.  Discuss  the  appropriateness  of  the  following  titles: 


THE   SUBJECT    BRIEFLY   DE- 
SCRIBED 

1.  Victory  of  a  newspaper  in 
securing  news  in  advance. 

2.  A  one-page  theme  to  prove 
that  lava  is  a  rock  solu- 
tion. 

3.  Accounts  of  a  nurse's  experi- 
ence during  the  Civil  War. 

4.  Lectures  on  how  and  what 
to  read. 

5.  A  story  of  life  on  a  fishing 
schooner  off  the  Orand 
Banks  of  Newfoundland. 

6.  The  typical  history  of  a  river, 

7.  A  description  of  an  old-fash- 
ioned garden  in  New 
Hampshire. 

8.  A  story    of    adventure    in 

search  of  pirates'  treasure. 

C.   Complete  tho  following  brief  notes,  and  then  write 
them  out  in  connected  form : 


THE   TITLE 

1.  "Historic  News  Beat." 

2.  "Lava." 

3.  "Hospital  Sketches." 

4.  "Sesame  and  Lilies." 

5.  "  Captains  Courageous. ' 

6.  "Rivers." 

7.  "A  Description." 

8.  "Treasure  Island." 


BUILDING   THE   THEME  51 

The  Eskimos. — (This  general  subject  should  be  narrowed  in 
some  way,  such  as,  '"Some  Customs  of  the  Eskimos,"  or,  "The 
Eskimos  of  Alaska.'")' 

Where  they  live;  near  seashore;  why?  Houses  made  of 
what;  how  heated,  how  furnished;  their  dress.  What  they  live 
on;  how  they  travel;  how  the  children  spend  their  time. 
Games;  dogs. 

A  Baseball  Game. — The  teams;  their  record;  their  condi- 
tion; how  matched.  The  first  inning;  our  expectations: 
remarks  of  the  spectators;  who  made  good  plays;  muffs;  fouls. 
The  turning-point  in  the  game  due  to  the  work  of  whom?  Wlio 
was  at  bat?  What  happened?  Other  exciting  plays;  the  final 
score.     How  we  celebi'ated  the  victory. 

A  Picnic. — Who  went;  where;  how  we  amused  ourselves; 
games,  rowing,  fishing;  talk;  dinner,  served  where;  con.sisted 
of  what;  our  appetites ;  what  places  of  interest  near;  went  to 
see  them ;  mishaps  of  the  day ;  our  return. 

D.  Make  notes  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  and 
bring  them  to  the  class  for  criticism : 

1.  The  building  of  a  bridge. 

2.  Improvements  in  the  town. 

3.  How  to  make  a  shirtwaist. 

4.  The  strange  behavior  of  a  dog. 

5.  My  favorite  game  and  how  it  is  played. 

E.  Material  for  the  following  subjects,  to  be  treated  as 
in  C,  can  easily  be  found  in  books: 

1.  The  story  of  Paul  Revere.  (See  Longfellow's  Tales  of  a 
Wayside  Inn.) 

2.  How  Ethan  Allen  took  Stony  Point.  (See  Laughlin's  His- 
tory of  the  American  Nation,  or  any  other  history.) 

3.  A  fight  with  the  Indians.  (See  Parkman's  works;  Fi.ske's 
Beginnings  of  New  England.) 

4.  How  Indians  live.  (Starr:  The  American  Indian,  ov Strange 
People. ) 

5.  How  Franklin  came  to  Philadelpliia.  (See  Strong's  5enya- 
min  Franklin ,  or  any  good  biography. ) 


1  See  Starr,  Strange  People;  and  geographies. 


52  COMPOSITION   AKD   RHETORIC 

F.  (1)  Prepare  preliminary  drafts  (first  form)  for 
descriptive  subjects  similiar  to  "Th'e  Behavior  of  Birds." 
Criticise  them  in  cUiss  and  make  out  the  second  form  on 
the  blackboard.  (2)  Prepare  drafts  one  and  two  for  a 
short  narrative  of  some  event  discussed  in  the  history 
class;  then  write  out  draft  three  and  submit  it  to  the 
class  for  criticism. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PARAGRAPHING 

17.  Natural  Divisions  of  a  Subject. — In  developing  the 
subject  of  t^e  Moki  villtige,  Ave  found  that  when  we  came 
to  the  second  form  our  ideas  began  to  arrange  themselves 
into  groups.  First  came  the  description  of  the  country 
where  the  Moki  village  is  situated ;  next  followed  a  general 
sketch  of  the  Moki  Indians,  their  customs,  and  their  houses ; 
then  a  description  of  the  guide's  house;  and,  lastly,  scenes 
in  the  village.  Considerable  changes  in  this  grouping 
appear  in  the  third  form,  which  is  more  orderly. 
Although  neither  in  the  third  nor  in  the  fourth  form  are 
the  divisions  shown  on  the  i">age,  yet  it  can  be  easily  seen 
that  at  different  points  there  is  a  distinct  change  of  sub- 
ject, or  shift  in  the  thought.  In  the  final  theme,  the  first 
group  of  ideas  is  introduced  by  the  sentence,  "It  was  late 
afternoon  when  our  ponies  turned  up  the  troAl,''''  (briefly, 
the  approach);  the  second,  by  the  sentence,  "Up,  up  the 
trail  ...  a  sudden  turn  hronght  lis  upon  the  village,'''' 
(briefly,  the  village);  the  third,  by  the  sentence,  "... 
even  the  streets  of  a  Moki  village  could  not  tempt  us  until 
we  had  eaten  and  rested^''''  (briefly,  our  resting-place). 
These  sentences  show  the  divisions  in  the  thought. 

As  soon  as  we  have  a  subject  in  mind,  the  ideas  related 
to  it  will  begin  to  arrange  themselves  in  groups.  For 
instance,  if  we  are  describing  a  visit  to  a  large  factory, 
certain  natural  divisions  suggest  themselves  at  once:  first, 
the  building,  or  "plant";  second,  what  was  seen  in  the 
factoiT;  and,  third,  the  information  about  the  factory 
gained  from  the  visit.      Of  course,  few  subjects  divide 

53 


54  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

themselves  as  easily  and  naturally  as  this;  frequently  the 
best  divisions  are  discovered  only  after  some  experiment; 
and  a  topic  often  admits  of  several  different  schemes  of 
division.  Home  division  of  a  subject  into  its  minor  groups, 
however,  should  be  made/;e/b;'ethe  last  draft  is  attempted. 
A  trial  scheme  should  be  kept  in  mind  after  the  prelimi- 
nary work  of  making  notes.  Otherwise  unless  the  writer 
has  an  exceptionally  logical  and  orderly  mind,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  him  to  keep  his  thoughts  well  grouped 
while  writing. 

18.  Divisions  Easily  Perceived  in  Good  Writing. — If  the 
writer  has  found  the  best  srheme  for  division — if  ho  l.as 
discovered  the  natural  units  in  his  subject,  and  has  tluis 
arranged  his  ideas  in  distinct  groups — it  will  be  easy  to 
discover  his  plan,  whether  he  shows  the  changes  of 
thought  on  the  page  or  not.  The  following  description  of 
Indian  houses,  for  example,  can  be  divided  into  four 
integral  parts  as  we  read : 

The  houses  of  the  Indians  vary  greatly.  In  some  tribes  they 
are  large  and  intended  for  several  families;  in  others  they  are 
small,  and  occupied  by  few  persons.  Some  are  admirably  con- 
structed, like  the  great  pueblo  houses  of  the  southwest,  made  of 
stone  and  adobe  mud ;  others  are  frail  structures  of  brush  and 
thatch.  The  material  naturally  varies  with  the  district.  An 
interesting  house  was  the  "long  house"  of  the  Iroquois.  From 
fifty  to  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  length  and  perhaps  not  more 
than  fifteen  in  width,  it  was  of  a  long  rectangular  form.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  light  framework  of  poles  tied  together,  which  was 
covered  with  long  strips  of  bark  tied  or  pegged  on.  There  was 
no  window,  but  tliere  was  a  doorway  at  each  end.  Blankets  or 
skins  hung  at  tliese  served  as  doors.  Through  the  house  from 
doorway  to  doorway  ran  a  centi'al  passage;  the  space  on  either 
side  of  this  was  divided  by  partitions  of  skins  into  a  series  of 
s<^  ills  each  of  which  was  occupied  by  a  family.  In  the  central 
passage  was  a  series  of  fireplaces  or  hearths,  each  one  of  which 
served  for  four  families.  A  large  house  of  this  kind  might  have 
five  or  even  more  hearths,  and  would  be  occupied  by  twenty  or 
more  families.    The  eastern  Algonkins  built  houses  like  those  of 


PARAGRAPHIXG  55 

the  Iroquois,  but  usually  much  smaller.  They  too  were  made  of 
a  light  framework  of  poles  over  which  were  hung  sheets  or  rush 
matting,  which  could  be  easily  removed  and  rolled  up,  for  future 
iLse  in  case  of  removal.  There  are  pictures  in  old  books  of  some 
Algonkin  villages.  These  villages  were  often  enclosed  by  a  line 
of  palisades  to  keep  off  enemies.  Sometimes  the  gardens  and 
cornfields  were  inside  this  palisading,  sometimes  outside.  The 
houses  in  these  pictures  usually  have  straight,  vertical  sides  and 
queer  rounded  roofs.  Sometimes  they  were  arranged  along 
streets,  but  at  others  they  were  placed  in  a  ring  around  a  cen- 
tral open  space,  where  games  and  celebrations  took  place. — 
Starr:  American  Indians. 

Here  we  have  (1)  the  material  and  general  aspect  of 
Indian  houses;  (2)  the  Iroquois  "long  house";  (3)  the 
Algonkin  house;  and  (4)  the  groups  of  houses  or  Indian 
villages.  In  the  same  way,  it  is  easy  to  see  where  Mr. 
Kipling  has  divided  his  topics  in  the  following  description 
of  a  boy's  life  on  board  a  fishing  schooner  on  the  "Banks." 
The  sailing-master  has  told  the  boy,  Harvey,  how  he 
makes  his  observations  from  the  sun : 

In  this  Harvey  excelled  Dan,  for  he  had  inherited  a  head  for 
figures,  and  the  notion  of  stealing  information  from  one  glimpse 
of  the  sullen  Bank  sun  appealed  to  all  his  keen  wits.  For  other 
sea-matters  his  age  handicapped  him.  As  Disko  said,  he  should 
have  begun  when  he  was  ten.  Dan  could  ball  up  trawl  or  lay 
his  hand  on  any  rope  in  the  dark ;  and  at  a  i^inch,  when  Uncle 
Salter  had  a  gurry  sore  on  his  palm,  could  dress  down  by  sense 
of  touch.  He  could  steer  in  anything  short  of  half  a  gale  from 
the  feel  of  the  wind  on  his  face,  humoring  the  We^re  Here  just 
when  she  needed  it.  These  things  he  did  as  automatically  as  he 
skipped  abovit  the  rigging,  or  made  the  dory  a  part  of  his  own 
will  and  body.  But  he  could  not  communicate  his  knowledge 
to  Harvey.  Still  there  was  a  good  deal  of  general  information 
flying  about  the  schooner  on  stormy  days,  when  they  lay  up  in 
the  foc'sle  or  sat  on  the  cabin  lockers,  while  spare  eye-bolts, 
leads,  and  rings  rolled  and  rattled  in  the  pauses  of  the  talk. 
Disko  spoke  of  whaling  voyages  in  the  fifties;  of  great  she- 
whales  slain  beside  their  young ;  of  death  agonies  on  the  black, 
tossing  seas,  and  blood  that  spurted  forty  feet  in  the  air;  of 
boats  smashed  to  splinters;    of  patent  rockets  that  went  off 


5G  COMPOSITION"    AXD    RnETORIC 

\vi-ong-entl -first  and  bombarded  the  trembling  crews;  of  cut- 
ting-in  aud  boiling  down;  and  that  terrible  "nip"  of  '71,  when 
twelve  hundred  men  were  made  homeless  on  the  ice  in  three 
days — wonderful  tales,  all  true.  But  more  wonderful  still  wei* 
his  stories  of  the  cod,  and  how  they  argued  and  reasoned  on 
their  private  businesses  deep  down  below  the  keel.  Long  Jack's 
tastes  ran  more  to  the  supernatural.  He  held  tliem  silent  with 
ghastly  stories  of  the  "Yo-hoes"  on  Monomy  Beach,  that  mock 
and  terrify  lonely  clam-diggers;  of  sand  walkers  and  dune-hunt- 
ers who  wei'e  never  properly  buried;  of  hidden  treasure  on  Fire 
Island  guarded  by  the  spirits  of  Kidd's  men;  of  ships  tliat 
sailed  in  the  fog  straight  over  Truro  township;  of  that  harbor 
in  Maine  where  no  one  but  a  stranger  will  lie  at  anchor  twice 
in  a  certain  place  because  of  a  dead  crew  who  ran  alongside 
at  midnight  with  the  anchor  in  the  bow  of  their  old-fashioned 
boat,  whistling — not  calling,  but  whistling — for  the  soul  of  the 
man  who  broke  their  rest. — Kipling:  Cajitains  Courageous. 

19.  Paragraphs. — These  divisions  of  the  topic  are  com- 
monly made  plain  to  the  eye  by  a  mechanical  device.  The 
first  lino  of  every  division  is  indented  (begins  in  from  the 
margin)  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  a  printed  page, 
and  an  inch  or  more  in  manuscript.  The  group  of  sen- 
tences thus  set  off  by  indentation  is  called  a  paragraph. 
Pai'agraphs,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  not  breaks  in  the 
page  made  arbitrarily  by  the  printer  to  relieve  the  eye  in 
reading.  They  represent  to  the  reader  the  divisions  that 
the  author  has  made  in  his  subject,  and  thus  they  are 
extremely  useful,  both  to  the  reader  and  to  the  writer. 

Paragraph  divisions  should  be  made  plainly.  At  first 
the  student  would  do  Avell  to  set  the  paragraph  mark  (•') 
against  the  opening  sentence  of  every  division  that  lie 
intends  to  make.  Many  careless  writers  indent  a  new 
sentence  whenever  it  begins  a  line,  and  also  leave  a  blank 
space  after  every  sentence  that  does  not  reach  the  end  of 
a  line.  This  habit  keeps  the  reader  in  doubt  as  to  where 
the  writer  intends  to  make  his  divisions,  and  also  breaks 
the  svninietry  of  tlic  page.     Keep   the  manuscript  even 


PARAGEAPHIXG  57 

with  the  margins  (as  in  printing),  except  when  a  paragraph 
is  to  be  made;  then  indicate  it  phiinly, 

20.  The  Length  of  Paragraphs. — If  a  paragraph  repre- 
vsents  a  division  of  thought  in  tlie  subject,  its  length  will 
vary  with  the  number  of  ideas  that  are  expressed  in  each 
part.  Sometimes  it  may  consist  of  a  sentence,  and  again 
it  may  cover  several  pages.  If  we  look  at  the  paragraphs 
of  good  writers,  however,  we  shall  learn  a  few  general 
facts  about  the  length  of  the  paragraph  that  will  help  us 
in  forming  our  own  units. 

In  writing  conversation,  usually  whatever  is  said  by  one 
person,  together  with  the  comment  of  the  writer  on  the 
speech,  and  the  writer's  statement  of  action  ("he  said," 
"replied,"  "moved,"  etc.),  is  placed  in  one  paragraph.^ 

In  simple  subjects,  such  as  short  stories  and  descrip- 
tions, because  the  topic  changes  frequently,  paragraphs 
are  usually  brief:  they  contain  roughly  from  two  to  ten 
sentences,  or  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

In  more  difficult  subjects,  such  as  long  essays,  where 
there  is  much  to  be  said  on  each  topic,  paragraphs  are 
longer:  they  contain,  usually  from  five  to  twenty  sen- 
tences, or  seventy-fire  to  three  hundred  words. 

If  the  writer  finds  himself  making  a  great  many  para- 
graphs of  one  or  two  short  sentences  only,  he  may  safely 
decide  that  his  divisions  of  thought  are  too  small  and 
are  not  important.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  finds  that 
lie  writes  two  or  more  manuscript  pages  before  he  comes 
to  a  division  of  his  thought,  he  may  infer,  as  a  general  rule, 
that  he  has  not  found  all  the  chief  divisions  of  his  subject. 

If  there  are  many  paragraphs  in  the  first  part  of  a  theme 
and  a  few  at  the  end,  or  vice  versa,  the  writer  may  infer. 


1  There  ai-e  certain  exceptions  to  this  rule:  -when  a  group  of  charac- 
ters speak  at  the  same  time;  or  when  the  speech  of  one  character 
Is  long  and  contains  thought-diviRions  of  its  own.  Examine  for  this  point 
any  story  by  Scott,  or  George  Eliot,  or  Hawthorne,  which  is  being  read  in 
class. 


58  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

usually,  that  his  thought-divisions  are  not  in  proper  pro- 
portion to  each  other.  In  one  part  he  has  divided  his 
thought  into  small  units,  and  in  the  other,  into  large 
units. 

Although  it  is  true  that  some  story-tellers  paragraph 
single  sentences  in  order  to  call  special  attention  to 
single  ideas,  such  a  practice  is  not  to  be  imitated,  for  the 
paragraph  device  is  not  intended  for  emphasis.  Do  not 
paragraph  every  important  statement,  as  is  the  custom 
in  sensational  journalism.  In  brief,  the  paragraph  should 
show  the  main  divisions  in  the  body  of  thought,  not  the 
small  ones. 

21.  Paragraph  Topics. — In  the  example  used  in  section 
18  of  this  chapter  the  divisions  of  thought  were  made  clear 
by  sentences  which  set  forth  the  subject  of  the  paragraph. 
Such  introductory  statements,  usually  called  "topic-sen- 
tences," are  of  great  convenience,  both  to  the  reader  and 
to  the  writer:  tliey  show  the  reader  the  topic  to  be 
treated,  and  they  help  to  keep  the  writer  strictly  to  his 
subject.  The  use  of  the  topic-sentence  may  be  seen  i.'i 
the  following  paragraphs.* 

The  first  paragraph  is  an  explanation  of  the  duties  of 
the  United  States  Senate : 

The  functions  of  the  Senate  fall  into  three  classes — legislative, 
executive,  and  judicial.  (The  topic. )  Its  legislative  function  is 
to  pass,  along  with  the  House  of  Representatives,  bills  whicli 
become  Acts  of  Congress  on  the  assent  of  the  President,  or  even 
without  his  consent,  if  passed  a  second  time  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  each  House,  after  he  has  returned  them  for  recon- 
sideration. Its  executive  functions  are:— (a)  To  approve  or  dis- 
approve the  President's  nominations  of  Federal  ofYicers,  including 
judges,  ministers  of  state,  and  ambassadors,  (b)  To  approve,  by 
a  majority  of  two-thirds  of  those  present,  of  treaties  made  by 


>  At  this  point  the  class  shouM  examine  such  books  as  Irvlng's  Tales  of  a 
Traveller,  and  Hawthorne's  Wnnfier  Tionk.  as  well  as  a  text-book  In  history,  the 
daily  paper,  and  a  well-vTitt*'n  magazine  iirtide,  to  discover  the  topic» 
sentences  of  paragraphs. 


PARAGRAPHIXG  59 

the  President— i.  e.  if  less  than  two-thirds  approve,  the  treaty 
falls  to  the  ground.  Its  judicial  function  is  to  sit  as  a  court  for 
the  trial  of  impeachments  preferred  by  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives.— Bryce:  American  Commonwealth. 

The  second  paragraph  is  a  description  of  an  autumn  day ; 
the  third,  a  description  of  birds  feasting: 

It  uxts,  as  I  have  said,  a  fine  autumnal  day.  (The  topic.) 
The  sky  was  clear  and  serene,  and  nature  wore  that  rich  and 
golden  livery  which  we  always  as.sociate  w^ith  the  idea  of 
abundance.  The  forests  had  put  on  their  sober  brown  and  yel- 
low, while  'some  trees  of  the  tenderer  kind  had  been  nipped  by 
the  frosts  into  brilliant  dj-es  of  orange,  purple,  and  scarlet. 
Streaming  files  of  wild  ducks  began  to  make  their  appearance 
high  in  the  air ;  the  bark  of  the  squirrel  might  be  heard  from  the 
groves  of  beech  and  hickory  nuts,  and  the  pensive  whistle  of  the 
quail  at  intervals  from  the  neighboring  stubble-field. 

The  small  birds  irere  taking  their  farewell  banquets.  In  the 
fulness  of  their  revelry  they  fluttered,  chirping  and  frolicking, 
from  bush  to  bush  and  tree  to  tree,  cajDricious  from  the  very 
profusion  and  variety  around  them.  There  was  the  honest  cock- 
robin,  the  favorite  game  of  stripling  sportsmen,  with  its  loud 
querulous  note;  and  the  twittex'ing  black-birds  flying  in  sable 
clouds;  and  the  golden-winged  woodpecker,  with  his  crimson 
crest,  his  broad  black  gorget,  and  splendid  plumage;  and  the 
cedar  bird,  with  its  red-tipt  wings  and  yellow-tipt  tail,  and  its 
little  monteiro  cap  of  feathers;  and  the  blue  jay,  that  noisy 
coxcomb,  in  his  gay  light-blue  coat  and  white  underclothes, 
screaming  and  chattering,  nodding  and  bobbing  and  bowing, 
and  pretending  to  be  on  good  terms  with  every  songster  of  the 
grove. — Irving:  Legend  of  Sleepy  Holloiv. 

22.  Topic-Sentences  Continued. — Topics  are  not  always 
announced  in  the  first  sentence  of  the  paragraph ;  some- 
times they  appear  after  one  or  more  lessimportant  state- 
ments, or  even  at  the  close  of  the  paragrajjh.  This 
description  of  a  steam-engine  has  a  definite  topic-sentence, 
but  it  does  not  stand  first: 

Take  a  hollow  cylinder,  the  bottom  closed  while  the  top 
remains  open,  and  pour  in  water  to  the  height  of  a  few  inches. 
Next  cover  the  water  with  a  fiat  plate,  or  piston,  which  fits  the 


60  COMPOSITIO^r    AXD   RHETORIC 

interior  of  the  cylinder  perfectly ;  then  apply  heat  to  the  water 
and  we  shall  witness  the  following  phenomena.  After  the  lapse 
of  some  minntes  the  water  will  begin  to  boil,  and  the  steam 
accumulating  at  the  upper  surface  will  make  room  for  itself  by 
raising  the  piston  slightly.  As  the  boiling  continues,  more  and 
more  steam  will  be  formed,  and  raise  the  piston  higher  and 
liigher,  till  all  the  water  is  boiled  away,  and  nothing  but  steam 
is  left  in  the  cylinder.  Now  this  machine,  consisting  of  cylin- 
der, piston,  water,  and  fire,  is  the  steam  engine  in  its  most 
elementary  form.  For  a  steam  engine  may  be  defined  as  an 
apparatus  for  doing  work  by  means  of  heat  applied  to  water ; 
and  since  raising  such  a  weight  as  the  piston  is  a  form  of  doing 
work,  this  apparatus,  clumsy  and  inconvenient  though  it  may 
be,  answers  the  definition  precisely. — Holmes:  The  Steam 
Engine. 

Not  every  paragraph  is  supplied  with  a  clear  topic- 
sentence;  especially  in  iiarrative  writing  the  topic  is  often 
gathered  from  all  the  sentences  and  not  stated  as  a  whole 
in  any  one.  The  following  paragraph  taken  from  an 
account  of  a  sea-fight  between  the  British  and  the  French 
has  no  topic-sentences: 

The  Victory  had  not  yet  returned  a  single  gun;  fifty  of  her 
men  had  been  b}'  this  time  killed  or  wounded,  and  her  main-top- 
mast, with  all  her  studding-sails  and  their  booms,  shot  away. 
Nelson  declared  that,  in  all  his  battles,  he  had  seen  nothing 
which  surpassed  the  cool  courage  of  his  crew  on  this  occasion. 
At  four  minutes  after  twelve,  she  oponed  her  fire  from  both  sides 
of  her  deck.  It  was  not  possible  to  break  the  enemy's  line  with- 
out running  on  board  one  of  their  ships:  Hardy  informed  him  of 
this,  and  asked  him  which  he  would  prefer.  Nelson  replied: 
"Take  your  choice.  Hardy,  it  does  not  signify  much."  The 
master  was  ordered  to  jjut  the  helm  to  port,  ami  the  Victorii  ran 
on  board  the  Redoubtable,  just  as  her  tiller-ropes  were  shot 
away.  The  French  ship  received  her  with  a  broadside;  then 
instantly  let  down  her  lower-deck  ports,  for  fear  of  being 
boardeil  through  them,  and  never  afterwards  fired  a  great  gun 
during  tlie  action. — Southey:  Life  of  Nelson. 

Whether  the  topic  is  definitely  expressed  in  the  para- 
graph or  not,  tlie  writer  should  ho  sure  that  each  para- 


PARAGRAPHING  61 

graph  has  some  one  topic,  which  he  can  state  at  will. 
Unless  he  can  supply  such  a  topic-sentence,  wherever  it 
does  not  exist  already,  he  may  be  sure  that  his  paragraph 
is  not  a  real  division  of  the  subject. 

Exercise  IV 

A.  State  what  natural  divisions  may  be  found  in  some 
of  the  following  subject*.  The  themes,  when  completed, 
should  each  take  about  three  pages : 

1.  The  labors  of  Hercules. 

2.  A  local  character. 

3.  The  history  of  a  raindrop. 

4.  The  history  of  a  snowflake. 

5.  Description  of  a  Roman  book. 

6.  Description  of  a  theatre  in  Shakspere's  time. 

7.  Relay  races. 

8.  A  ride  on  a  locomotive. 

9.  What  Lincoln  did  for  his  country. 

10.  The  government  of  Chicago  (or  any  other  city). 

11.  The  process  of  electroplating. 

12.  The  process  of  making  a  photograph. 

13.  Salt:  its  sources,  and  how  it  is  rendered  suitable  for  use. 

14.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy's  safety  lamp. 

15.  Expert  accounting. 

16.  Mowgli  and  his  friends,  in  The  Jungle  Book. 

17.  An  account  of  a  night  in  the  woods. 

18.  How  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  elected. 

19.  A  trip  in  an  air-ship,  with  description  of  the  objects  below 
the  traveler. 

20.  The  dead-letter  of3ace. 

B.  Have  the  proper  divisions  of  thought  been  made  in 
the  following  themes?  If .  not,  make  the  necessary  cor- 
rections. 

PRINCE   PERCIVAL 

1.  There  was  once  upon  a  time  a  prince  named  Percival.  He 
had  everything  he  could  wish  for.  The  castle  in  which  he  lived 
was  octagonal.  All  the  rooms  were  exactly  alike,  with  a  win- 
dow in  the  center  of  the  wall  and  panels  on  each  side.  Tliere 
was  a  table  in  the  middle  of  the  room  with  a  flower  on  it.    There 


62  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

was  also  a  bird  in  a  cage.  On  one  side  there  was  a  comfortable 
lounge;  on  the  other,  a  bookcase  with  many  books  in  it.  The 
prince  never  did  anything  except  amuse  himself;  most  of  the 
time  he  sat  and  read.  Sometimes  he  asked  the  maid  why  she  did 
not  feed  the  bird,  or  water  the  plant,  and  the  maid  always 
replied  that  the  bird  and  the  plant  were  his,  to  do  with  as  he 
liked.  At  last  he  noticed  that  the  walls  seemed  to  be  getting 
smaller,  and  also  the  window.  He  did  not  pay  attention  to  this 
at  first,  but  after  a  while  the  window  got  so  small  that  it  did  not 
let  in  enough  air  and  sunshine  to  keep  a  person  healthy,  and  the 
prince  began  to  feel  sick,  and  did  not  eat  the  food  brought  in  to 
him.  One  day  he  thought  he  would  like  to  hear  the  bird  sing; 
so  he  got  up  from  the  lounge  and  gave  the  bird  a  few  crumbs, 
and  asked  it  to  sing  for  him.  The  bird  sang  a  few  notes,  and 
then  the  prince  went  back  to  the  lounge.  He  looked  at  the  win- 
dow, and  thought  it  had  got  to  be  a  little  larger.  Every  day 
now  he  gave  the  bird  some  food,  and  it  sang  a  little  more,  and 
he  watered  the  plant,  and  it  looked  brighter.  The  room  kept 
growing  larger,  and  at  last  it  was  as  big  as  ever.  The  prince 
learned  the  lesson,  and  after  that  was  a  happier  little  boy. 

LOHENGRIN 

2.  Henry  the  First  of  Germany,  who  was  known  to  his  sub- 
jects as  the  "Fowler,"  went  to  Antwerp  for  the  purpose  of  get- 
ting troops  to  aid  him  in  crushing  the  rebellion  which  was 
threatening  the  kingdom. 

Upon  his  arrival  at  Brabant,  a  small  town  outside  of  Antwerp, 
he  found  it  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 

Elsa,  who  was  the  daughter  of  the  late  duke,  was  charged  by 
Telramund,  the  one  who  claimed  the  dukedom,  with  killing  her 
brother,  who  had  mysteriously  disappeared. 

It  was  announced  to  her  that  she  might  choose  a  knight  to 
fight  in  her  cause  with  Telramund,  the  accuser. 

She  describes  the  knight,  whom  she  has  seen  in  a  dream,  and 
she  decides  to  wait  for  him  to  appear. 

Upon  the  day  ap{)ointed  the  court  assembled  on  the  banks  of 
a  river  near  Antwerp. 

On  the  third  blast  of  the  bugle  a  knight  was  seen  approach- 
ing, in  a  boat  drawn  by  a  swan. 

Before  the  battle,  Lohengrin,  the  knight  who  comes  to  fight 
in  Elsa's  behalf,  betroths  himself  to  Elsa,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  she  will  never  question  him  as  to  his  race  or  name. 


PARAGRAPHING  63 

This  Elsa  faithfully  promises. 

Telrarnund  was  defeated,  but  not  killed,  by  Lohengrin. 

When  Ortrud  hears  of  the  betrothal,  she  goes  to  Elsa  and 
advises  her  not  to  marry  Lohengrin,  as  it  is  possible  that  he  is 
not  her  equal. 

Elsa  does  not  heed  Ortrud,  saying  that  she  knew  him  to  be 
faithful  and  brave. 

On  the  night  of  their  wedding,  after  Elsa  has  been  question- 
ing Lohengrin  as  to  his  race  and  name,  Telrarnund,  accompanied 
by  four  knights,  rushes  into  the  apartments  of  Lohengrin  and 
Elsa,  with  the  intention  of  taking  the  life  of  Lohengrin. 

But  this  gallant  knight  is  too  quick  for  Telrarnund,  and  one 
blow  of  his  sword  kills  the  husband  of  Ortrud. 

Lohengrin  then  places  Elsa  in  charge  of  her  ladies,  and  orders 
her  taken  to  the  king,  saying  he  will  follow.  He  then 
announces  to  them  that  he  is  the  son  of  King  Parsifal  of  the 
Holy  Grail. 

He  is  now  compelled  to  go  back  to  his  father's  court. 

The  swan  again  appears,  drawing  the  boat,  into  which  Lohen- 
grin jum])s.  As  it  moves  off  slowly,  Ortrud  tells  them  that  the 
swan  is  the  long-lost  brother  of  Elsa,  whom  she  herself  has 
bewitched  into  this  form. 

Lohengrin  disenchants  the  swan  and  moves  off  sorrowfully, 
leaving  Elsa  to  die  in  her  brother's  arms. 

3.  These  fish  [the  bonito]  so  named  by  the  Spaniards  from 
their  handsome  appearance,  are  a  species  of  mackerel,  and  attain 
a  length  of  about  two  feet,  and  a  weight  of  about  forty  pounds, 
though  their  average  dimensions  are  somewhat  less  than  half 
that.  They  feed  entirely  upon  flying-fish  and  the  small  leaping 
squid  or  cuttle-fish.  They  love  to  follow  a  ship,  playing  around 
her,  if  her  pace  be  not  too  great,  for  days  together.  Their  flesh 
resembles  beef  in  appearance,  and  they  are  warm-blooded. 
From  their  habitat  being  mid-ocean,  nothing  is  known  with  any 
certainty  of  their  habits  of  breeding. 

The  regular  method  of  catching  them  on  board  ship  begins 
with  covering  a  suitable  hook  with  a  piece  of  white  rag  two  or 
three  inches  long,  and  attaching  it  to  a  stout  line.  The  fisher- 
man then  takes  his  seat  upon  the  jibboom  end,  having  first,  if 
he  is  prudent,  secured  a  sack  to  the  jibstay  in  such  a  manner 
that  its  mouth  gapes  wide.  Then  he  unrolls  his  line,  and,  as  the 
ship  forges  ahead,  the  line,  blowing  out,  describes  a  curve,  at  the 


64  COMPOSITIOiV    AND    KHETORIC 

eud  of  which  the  bait,  dipping  to  the  water  occasionally, 
roughly  represents  a  flying-fish. 

As  the  bait  leaps  from  crest  to  crest  of  the  wavelets  thrust 
aside  by  the  advancing  ship,  a  fish  more  adventurous  or  hungrier 
than  the  rest  will  leap  at  it,  and  in  an  instant  there  is  a  dead, 
dangling  weight  of  from  ten  to  forty  pounds  hanging  at  the  end 
of  your  line  thirty  feet  below.  You  haul  frantically,  for  he  may 
be  poorly  hooked,  and  you  cannot  play  him.  In  a  minute  or 
two,  if  all  goes  well,  he  is  plunged  in  the  sack,  and  safe.  But 
woe  unto  you  if  you  have  allov.-ed  the  jeers  of  your  shipmates  to 
dissuade  you  from  taking  a  sack  out  with  you. 

The  struggles  of  these  fish  are  marvellous,  and  a  man  runs  great 
risk  of  being  shaken  off  the  boom,  unless  his  legs  are  firmly  locked 
in  between  the  guys.  Such  is  the  tremendous  vibration  that  a 
twenty -pound  bonito  makes  in  a  man's  grip,  that  it  can  be  felt  in 
the  cabin  at  the  other  end  of  the  ship;  and  I  have  often  come  in 
triumphantly  with  one,  having  lost  all  feeling  in  my  arms  and  a 
goodly  portion  of  skin  off  my  breast  and  side  where  I  have  em- 
braced tlie  prize  in  a  grim  determination  to  hold  him  at  all  haz- 
ards.— Frank  T.  Bullen  :  The  Cruise  of  the  Cachalot.  (Adapted. ) 

C.  What  is  indentation?  What  is  a  paragraph?  How 
does  a  paragraph  differ  from  a  sentence?  What  is  the  use 
of  the  paragraph  for  the  writer?  For  the  reader?  How 
is  the  length  of  a  paragraph  determined?  Should  the 
paragraph  division  he  made  before  the  final  draft  is  com- 
pleted, or  after?  What  is  your  custom  in  this  matter? 
What  advantages  has  your  custom  of  jxiragraphing? 

D.  Where  should  paragraphs  be  made  in  the  following 
extracts?     What  are  the  topic-sentences? 

1.  The  place  of  our  retreat  was  in  a  little  neighbourhood  con- 
sisting of  farmers,  who  tilled  their  own  grounds,  and  were  equal 
strangers  to  opulence  and  poverty.  As  they  had  almost  all  tlie 
conveniences  of  life  within  themselves,  they  seldom  visited 
towns  or  cities  in  search  of  superfluity.  Remote  from  the  polite, 
tliey  still  retained  the  primeval  simplicity  of  manners;  and, 
frugal  by  habit,  they  scarce  knew  that  temperance  was  a  virtue. 
They  wrought  with  cheerfulness  on  days  of  labour,  but  observed 
festivals  as  intervals  of  idleness  and  pleasure.  They  kept  up  the 
Christmas  carol,  sent  true-love-nots  on  Valentine  morning,  ate 


PARAORAPHING  65 

pancakes  on  Shrovetide,  showed  their  wit  on  the  first  of  April 
and  reUgiously  cracked  nnt?  on  Michaehiias  eve.  Being  apprised 
of  our  approach,  the  whole  neighbourhood  came  out  to  meet  their 
minister,  dressed  in  their  finest  clothes  and  preceded  by  a  pipe 
and  tabour.  A  feast  also  was  provided  for  our  reception,  at 
which  we  sat  cheerfully  down  •  and  wliat  the  conversation 
wanted  in  wit  was  made  up  in  laughter.  Our  little  habitation 
was  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  sloping  hill,  sheltered  with  a  beau- 
tiful underwood  behind,  and  a  prattling  river  before;  on  one 
side  a  meadow,  on  the  other  a  green.  My  farm  consisted  of 
about  twenty  acres  of  excellent  land,  having  given  an  hundred 
pound  for  my  predecessor's  good  will.  Nothing  could  exceed 
the  neatness  of  my  little  enclosures,  the  elms  and  hedgerows 
appearing  with  inexpressible  beauty.  My  house  consisted  of  but 
one  story,  and  was  covered  witii  thatch,  which  gave  it  an  air  of 
great  snvigness;  the  walls  on  tlie  inside  were  nicely  white- 
washed, and  my  daughters  undertook  to  adorn  them  with  pic- 
tures of  their  own  designing.  Though  the  same  room  served  us 
for  parlour  and  kitchen,  that  only  made  it  the  warmer.  Besides, 
as  it  was  kept  with  the  utmost  neatness — the  dishes,  plates,  and 
coppers  being  well  scoured,  and  all  disposed  in  briglit  rows  on 
the  shelves — the  eye  was  agreeably  relieved,  and  did  not  want 
richer  furniture.  There  were  three  other  apartments:  one  for 
my  wife  and  me,  another  for  our  two  daughters  within  our  own, 
and  the  third,  with  two  beds,  for  the  rest  of  the  cliildren.  Tlie 
little  republic  to  which  I  gave  laws  was  regulated  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: — By  sunrise  we  all  assembled  in  our  common  apart- 
ment, the  fire  being  previously  kindled  by  the  servant.  After 
we  had  saluted  each  other  with  proper  ceremony — for  I  always 
thought  fit  to  keep  up  some  mechanical  forms  of  good  breeding, 
without  which  freedom  ever  destroys  friendship — we  all  bent  in 
gratitude  to  that  Being  who  gave  us  another  day.  This  duty 
being  performed,  my  son  and  I  went  to  pui'sue  our  usual  indus- 
try abroad,  while  my  wife  and  daughters  employed  themselves 
in  providing  breakfast,  which  was  always  ready  at  a  certain 
time.  I  allowed  half  an  hour  for  this  meal,  and  an  hour  for  din- 
ner, which  time  was  taken  up  in  innocent  mirth  between  my 
wife  and  daughters,  and  in  philosophical  arguments  between  my 
son  and  me.  As  we  rose  with  the  sun,  so  we  never  pursued  our 
labours  after  it  was  gone  down,  but  returned  home  to  the  expect- 
ing family,  where  smiling  looks,  a  neat  heartli,  and  pleasant  fire 
were  prepared  for  our  reception.     Nor  were  we  witliout  guests: 


66  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

sometimes  Farmer  Flamborough,  our  talkative  neighbour,  and 
often  the  blind  piper,  would  pay  us  a  visit,  and  taste  our  goose- 
berry wine,  for  the  making  of  which  we  had  lost  neither  the 
receipt  nor  the  reputation.  These  harmless  people  had  several 
ways  of  being  good  company ;  while  one  played,  the  other  would 
sing  some  soothing  ballad— Johnny  Armstrong's  Last  Good 
Night,  or  the  cruelty  of  Barbara  Allen.  The  night  was  con- 
cluded in  the  manner  we  began  the  morning,  my  youngest  boys 
being  appointed  to  read  the  lessons  of  the  day;  and  he  that  read 
loudest,  distinctest,  and  best  was  to  have  a  halfpenny  on  Sunday 
to  put  in  the  poor's  box.— Goldsmith:    The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

2.  It  was  none  too  soon  for  me  to  look  to  my  own  part ;  for 
my  head  was  scarce  back  at  the  window  before  five  men  carry- 
ing a  square  yard  for  a  battering  ram  ran  past  me  and  took  post 
to  drive  the  door  in.  I  had  never  fired  with  a  pistol  in  my  life 
and  not  often  with  a  gun,  far  less  against  a  fellow  creature.  But 
it  was  now  or  never,  and  just  as  they  sprang  the  yard  I  cried 
out:  "Take  that!"  and  shot  into  their  midst.  I  must  have  hit 
one  of  them,  for  he  sang  out  and  gave  back  a  step  and  the  rest 
stopped  as  if  a  little  disconcerted.  Before  they  had  time  to 
recover  I  sent  another  ball  over  their  heads,  and  at  my  third 
shot  (which  went  as  wide  as  the  second)  the  whole  party  threw 
down  the  yard  and  ran  for  it.  Then  I  looked  around  again  into 
the  deck-house.  The  Avhole  place  was  full  of  smoke  of  my  own 
firing,  just  as  my  ears  seemed  to  be  burst  with  the  noise  of  the 
shot.  But  there  was  Allan  standing  as  before ;  only  now  his 
sword  was  running  blood  to  the  hilt  and  himself  so  swelled  with 
triumph  and  fallen  into  so  fine  an  attitude  that  he  looked  to  be 
invincible.  Right  before  him  on  the  floor  was  Mr.  Shuan  on  his 
hands  and  knees ;  the  blood  was  pouring  from  his  mouth  and  he 
was  sinking  slowly  lower  with  a  terrible  white  face,  and  just  as 
I  looked  some  of  those  from  behind  caught  hold  of  him  by  the 
heels  and  dragged  him  bodily  out  of  the  round  house.  I 
believed  he  died  as  they  were  doing  it.— Stevenson:  Kidnapped. 

E.  Of  these  three  short  themes  on  the  same  suhject,why 
is  the  second  better  tlian  the  first?  The  third  better  than 
either  the  first  or  the  second? 

THE  STORY   OF  THE  CASKETS 

1.  The  story  of  the  caskets  in  The  ^lerehavd  of  Venice  was  one 
af  the  three  stories  in  the  play.     The  story  of  the  caskets  depends 


PARAGRAPHING  67 

on  the  will  of  Portia's  father.  Portia  was  a  rich  heiress.  Her 
father  when  he  died  made  a  will  saying  that  any  one  who 
wanted  to  marry  Portia  must  decide  his  fate  by  three  caskets. 
One  was  gold,  one  was  silver,  and  one  was  lead.  They  all  had 
different  inscriptions.  Different  suitors  chose  different  ones. 
But  they  were  all  mistaken  but  Bassanio.  He  chose  the  one 
with  the  picture  in  it.  For  Portia's  father  had  caused  a  picture 
of  her  to  be  placed  in  the  right  casket,  and  Bassanio  chose  that. 
The  other  two  contained  a  death's  head  and  the  portrait  of  a 
blinking  idiot.  There  were  also  pieces  of  poetry  in  each  casket 
about  the  man  who  chose  them.  But  Bassanio  was  the  lucky 
man. 

2.  The  story  of  the  caskets  is  one  of  the  three  stories  in  The 
Merchant  of  Venice. 

Portia  was  the  daughter  of  a  rich  man  of  Venice.  She  was 
very  beautiful. 

When  he  died  he  made  a  will  which  said  that  any  man  who 
wanted  to  marry  his  daughter  must  choose  her  according  to 
three  caskets.  If  he  did  not  choose  the  right  casket,  he  had  to 
promise  never  to  marry  anybody. 

These  caskets  were  made  of  different  metals.  One  was  gold, 
one  was  silver,  and  one  was  lead.  They  all  had  inscriptions  on 
them.  On  the  gold  one  it  said:  "Who  chooseth  me  shall  gain 
what  many  men  desire."  On  the  silver  one  it  said:  "Who 
chooseth  me  shall  get  as  much  as  he  deserves. "  On  the  lead  one 
it  said:  "Who  chooseth  me  must  give  and  hazard  all  he  hath." 

Inside  the  gold  one  was  a  death's  head  and  some  verses. 
Inside  the  silver  one  was  the  picture  of  a  fool.  Inside  the  lead 
one  was  Portia's  picture.  This  showed  that  the  last  was  the 
right  one. 

The  Prince  of  Morocco  chose  the  gold  one  and  the  Prince  of 
Arragon  the  silver  one.  So  they  both  failed  to  obtain  Portia, 
and  besides  could  never  marry.  But  Bassanio  said  that,  as  the 
world  was  still  deceived  by  ornament,  he  would  choose  the  lead 
casket. 

Thus  Bassanio  won  the  fair  heiress  to  be  his  bride,  because  he 
knew  that  all  that  glistens  is  not  gold. 

3.  The  story  of  the  caskets,  one  of  the  three  stories  that  are 
woven  together  to  make  the  play  of  The  Merchant  of  Venice, 
tells  how  Portia,  a  beautiful  heiress,  was  won  in  marriage.  By 
the  provisions  of  her  father's  will,  all  suitors  to  her  hand  were 


68  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

to  choose  one  of  three  caskets.     The  suitor  before  choosing  had 
to  swear  that  if  he  were  unsuccessful  he  would  never  marry. 

Princes  and  noblemen,  hearing  of  Portia's  beauty  and  wealth, 
came  from  all  over  the  world  to  try  their  fate.  Indeed,  the 
Prince  of  Morocco,  one  of  the  suitors,  said : 

"The  Hyrcanian  deserts  and  the  vasty  wilds 
Of  wide  Arabia  are  as  thoroughfares  now 
For  princes  come  to  view  fair  Portia." 

This  same  Prince  of  Morocco  was  the  first  person  to  make  a 
choice.  Having  looked  at  all  the  caskets  and  carefully  read 
their  inscriptions,  he  chose  the  gold  one,  thinking  that  the 
inscription  on  that,  "Who  chooseth  me  shall  get  what  many 
men  desire,"  meant  that  it  was  the  fortunate  casket.  But  on 
opening  it  he  found  only  a  skull,  in  the  eyesocket  of  which  was 
a  paper  with  verses  saying:  "All  that  glistens  is aaot  gold."  So 
he  departed  sadly. 

The  next  to  try  was  the  Prince  of  Arragon.  Like  the  Prince 
of  Morocco,  he  read  all  the  inscriptions  carefully,  and  finally 
chose  the  silver  casket,  because  on  that  were  the  words,  "Who 
chooseth  me  shall  get  as  much  as  he  deserves,"  and  he  thought 
that  he  would  stand  on  his  merits.  On  opening  the  casket,  how- 
ever, he  found  only  the  picture  of  a  fool,  with  verses  mocking 
him.     So  he  too  went  away. 

Then  came  Bassanio,  a  man  whom  Portia  liked.  She  was 
almost  as  anxious  while  he  was  making  his  choice  as  he  was 
himself.  He  commented  on  the  caskets  to  himself  while  soft 
music  played,  discarding  the  gold  because  it  merely  made  a 
show,  the  silver  because  it  was  a  common  metal  used  for  money. 
But  the  lead  casket,  which  was  unpretentious  and  which  had 
rather  a  forbidding  inscription,  "Who  chooseth  me  must  give 
and  hazard  all  he  liath,"  attracted  him,  and  he  chose  it. 
Portia,  who  knew  that  the  leaden  casket  was  the  right  one,  was 
full  of  joy,  and  when  Bassanio  opened  the  casket  and  found 
Portia's  picture— the  token  of  success— he  was  full  of  joy,  too. 
He  read  the  inscription  which  told  him  that  he,  the  man  who 
did  not  choose  the  showy  things,  was  the  fortunate  person,  and 
"turned  to  where  his  lady  was,  and  claimed  her  with  a  loving 
kiss." 

G.  Paragraph  the  following  conversations : 
1.   "What  would  you  do?"  asked  Charlotte  presently— the  book 
of  the  moment  always  dominating  lier  tlioughts  until   it  was 


PAEAGRAPHIXG  69 

sucked  dry  and  cast  aside — "what  would  you  do  it  you  saw  two 
lions  in  the  road,  one  on  each  side,  and  you  didn't  know  if  they 
were  loose  or  if  they  were  chained  up?"  "Do?"  shouted 
Edward,  valiantly,  "I  should — I  should — I  should — "  His  boast- 
ful accents  died  away  into  a  mumble:  "Dunno  what  I  should 
do."  "Shouldn't  do  anything,"  I  observed  after  consideration; 
and  really  it  would  be  difficiilt  to  arrive  at  a  wiser  conclvision. 
"If  it  came  to  'doing'  "  remarked  Harold,  reflectively,  "the 
lions  would  do  all  the  doing  there  was  to  do,  wouldn't  they?" 
"But  if  they  were  good  lions,"  rejoined  Charlotte,  "they  would 
do  as  they  would  be  done  by."  "Ah,  but  how  do  you  know  a 
good  lion  from  a  bad  one?"  said  Edward.  "The  books  don't  tell 
j'ou  at  all,  and  the  lions  ain't  marked  any  different."  "Why, 
there  ain't  anj'  good  lions,"  said  Harold  hastily.  "Oh,  yes, 
there  are,  heaps  and  heaps,"  contradicted  Edward.  "Nearly  all 
the  lions  in  the  story  books  are  good  lions.  There  was 
Androcles'  lion,  and  St.  Jerome's  lion,  and — and — and  the  Lion 
and  the  Unicorn — "  "He  beat  the  Unicorn,"  observed  Harold, 
dubiously,  "all  around  the  town.''  "That  proves  he  was  a  good 
lion,"  cried  Edward  triumphantly.  "But  the  question  is,  how 
are  you  to  tell  'em  when  you  see  'em?''  "I  should  ask  Martha," 
said  Harold  of  the  simple  creed.  —  Kexneth  Geahame  :  The 
Golden  Age. 

2.   "Tlie  great  art  of  riding,"  the  Knight  suddenly  Isegan  in  a 

loud  voice,  waving  his  right  arm  as  he  spoke,  "is  to  keep " 

Here  the  seiitence  ended  as  suddenly  as  it  had  begun,  as  the 
Knight  fell  heavily  on  the  top  of  his  head  exactly  in  the  path 
where  Alice  was  walking.  She  was  quite  frightened  this  time, 
and  said  in  an  anxious  tone:  "I  hope  no  bones  are  broken."' 
"None  to  speak  of,"  the  Knight  said,  as  if  he  didn't  mind  break- 
ing two  or  three  of  them.  "The  great  art  of  riding,  as  I  was 
saying,  is — to  keep  your  balance  properly.  Like  this,  you 
know- — "  He  let  go  the  bridle  and  stretched  out  both  his 
arms  to  show  Alice  what  he  meant,  and  this  time  he  fell  flat  on 
his  back,  right  under  the  horse's  feet.  "Plenty  of  practice,"  he 
went  on  repeating,  all  the  time  that  Alice  was  getting  him  on 
his  feet  again.  "Plenty  of  practice.''  "It's  too  ridiculous,'" 
cried  Alice,  losing  all  her  patienqe  this  time.  "You  ought  to 
have  a  wooden  horse  on  wheels,  that  you  ought."  "Does  that 
kind  go  smoothly?"  the  Knight  said  in  a  tone  of  great  interest, 
clasping  his  arms  around  the  horse's  neck  as  he  spoke,  just  in 


70 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


time  to  save  him  from  tumbling  off  again.  "Much  more 
smootlily  than  a  live  horse,"  Alice  said,  with  a  little  scream  of 
laughter,  in  spite  of  all  she  could  do  to  prevent  it.  "I'll  get 
one,"  the  Knight  said  thoughtfully  to  himself.  "One  or  two — 
several." — Lewis  Carroll:  Alice  in  Wonderland. 

H.  Compare  the  paragraphing  of  these  short  themes. 
What  advantage  have  the  second  forms  over  the  first? 


{Extract  from  theme  on 
Macaulay) 

1.  Thomas  Babington  Ma- 
caulay was  born  on  the  25th  of 
October,  1800,  at  Roth  ley 
Chapel,  in  Leicestershire. 

His  father,  Zachary,  was  a 
stern,  austere  man,  a  Scotch 
Presbyterian,  and  a  leading 
agitator  of  the  antislavery 
movement. 

His  mother  was  a  noble  wo- 
man of  Quaker  descent,  and 
Macaulay "s  love  of  his  mother 
and  of  his  home  is  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  traits  in  his 
character. 

In  his  early  childhood  Ma- 
caulay showed  indisputable 
evidence  of  his  coining  great- 
ness. At  the  age  of  four  he  had 
learned  to  read  and  at  five  he 
had  read  the  entire  Bible. 
Even  at  this  age  he  began 
to  use  those  long  words  which 
are  so  much  in  evidence  in  his 
writing. 

One  day,  when  he  was  at 
dinner  with  his  father  and 
mother,  at  the  house  of  a 
neighbor,  the  servant,  while 
passing  the  coffee,  overturned 
(k  cupful  on  his  legs.     The  lady 


{Reirritten  form) 

Thomas  Babington  Macaulay 
was  born  on  the  tvventj'-fifth 
of  October,  eighteen  hundred, 
at  Rothley  Chapel,  in  Leices- 
tershire. His  father,  Zachary, 
was  a  stern,  austere  man,  a 
Scotch  Presbyterian,  and  a 
leading  agitator  ',of  the  anti- 
slavery  movement.  His  mother 
was  a  noble  woman  of  Quaker 
descent.  His  mother,  and  the 
home  she  made,  inspired  Ma- 
caulay with  a  love  which  was 
one  of  the  pleasing  traits  in  his 
character 

Even  in  his  early  childhood 
Macaulay  showed  evidences  of 
his  coming  greatness.  At  the 
age  of  .four  he  had  learned  to 
read,  and  at  five  he  had  read 
the  entire  Bible.  As  early  as 
this,  too,  he  began  to  use  those 
long  words  which  are  so  much 
in  evidence  in  his  writings. 
Illustrative  of  this  fact  is  the 
following  anecdote.  While  he 
was  dining  one  day  with  his 
father  and  mother  at  the  house 
of  a  neighbor  the  servant  up- 
set a  cup  of  coffee  on  his  legs. 
On  his  hostess's  inquiry  as  to 
whether    he    was    hurt,    the 


PARAGKAPHINQ 


71 


of  the  house,  as  soon  as  she 
perceived  the  accident,  in- 
quired whether  he  was  in 
much  pain.  Young  Thomas 
immediately  replied :  "Madam, 
the  agony  is  somewhat 
abated." 

JIM 

2.  "Jiml  Jim!  where  can 
that  boy  be?  It  is  fully  an 
hour  since  I  sent  him  down 
town.  Well,  there  he  is  at 
last,  and  I'll  wager  he  has  for- 
gotten what  I  sent  him  after. 
How  many  times  have  I  told 
you  not  to  go  out  without  your 
coat  and  hat  on?"  "  'Clare  it's 
too  hot."  "Well,  perhaps  it  is 
too  hot  to  go  errands,  but  how 
about  the  circus  this  after- 
noon? It  will  be  cooler  then,  I 
suppose.  Yes,  you  may  go,  but 
the  next  time  you  go  to  the 
postoffice,  mind  you  hurry  and 
don't  stop  to  carry  water  for 
the  animals ;  for  I  know  that's 
what  you  have  been  doing; 
your  clothes  are  wet.  Now 
you  needn't  '  'clare  fo'  good- 
ness you  hasn't,'  for  can't  I  see 
the  edge  of  that  pink  ticket  in 
your  pocket?  Yes,  you  may 
go  this  time,  but  you  must 
finish  your  work  first."  Jim 
shufiles  out  of  sight,  and  I  can 
hear  him  whistling  as  he  cuts 
the  grass.  In  about  two  hours 
he  comes  back  and  tells  me: 
"I'm  through.  Missus;  cut 
every  wisp  o'  grass  and  fed  it 
to  the  cow,"    What  a  change 


young  Thomas  immediately  re- 
plied: "Madam,  the  agony  is 
somewhat  abated." 


JIM  {Rewritten) 

Jim !  Jim !  Where  can  that 
boy  be?  It  is  fully  an  hour 
since  I  sent  him  down  town. 
Well,  there  he  is  at  last,  and 
I'll  wager  he  has  forgotten 
what  I  sent  him  after.  "How 
many  times  have  I  told  you 
not  to  go  without  your  coat 
and  hat  on?"  "  'Clare  it's  too 
hot."  "Well,  perhaps  it  is  too 
hot  to  go  errands,  but  how 
about  the  circus  this  after- 
noon? It  will  be  cooler  then, 
I  suppose.  Yes,  you  may  go, 
but  next  time  you  go  to  the 
postoffice,  mind  you  hurry  and 
don't  stop  to  carry  water  for 
the  animals.  I  know  that's 
what  you  have  been  doing; 
your  clothes  are  wet.  Now 
you  needn't  '  'clare  fo'  good- 
ness you  hasn't,'  for  can't  I  see 
the  edge  of  that  pink  ticket  in 
your  pocket?  Yes,  you  may  go 
this  time,  but  you  must  finish 
your  work  first." 

Jim  shuffles  out  of  sight,  and 
I  can  hear  him  whistling  as  he 
cuts  the  grass.  In  about  two 
hours  he  comes  back  and  tells 
me:  "I'm through,  Missus;  cut 
every  wisp  o'  grass  and  fed  it 
to  the  cow." 


72 


COMPOSITION   AND   KHETORIC 


has  taken  place  in  him!  His 
Tnother  has  polished  his  face 
until  it  shines  like  ebony,  his 
hands  are  cleaner  than  usual, 
and  his  hat,  for  a  wonder, 
has  a  brim.  His  clothes,  his 
"meetin' "  clothes,  the  ones 
his  mammy  bought  him  last 
court-day,  have  been  taken  out 
of  the  press  and  huiTied  into. 
Jim  likes  new  clothes,  but 
thinks  it  an  outrage  to  wear  a 
coat ;  it  hides  the  pride  of  his 
heart — his  new  suspenders.  It 
is  very  seldom  that  one  of  these 
little  darkies  gets  a  pair  of  new 
galluses;  they  ai-e  generally 
hand-me-downs,  and  by  the 
time  they  reach  the  youngest 
they  are  usually  only  one  strap. 

But  to-day  these  give  place 
to  the  circus  with  its  animals 
and  clowns,  and  the  coat  is 
buttoned  tight  under  his  chin 
to  keep  the  precious  ticket 
from  falling  out. 

Jim  gone,  I  go  out  to  lock 
the  stable  and  give  the  cow  an 
unusually  good  supper,  as  I 
know  that  on  the  morrow  she 
will  liave  to  be  the  poor  horse 
while  Jim  plays  clown. 


What  a  change  has  taken 
place  in  him !  His  mother  has 
polished  his  face  until  it  shines 
like  ebony,  his  hands  are 
cleaner  than  usual,  and  his 
hat,  for  a  wonder,  has  a  brim. 
His  clothes,  his  "meetin""' 
clothes,  the  ones  his  mammy 
bought  last  court-day,  have 
been  taken  out  of  the  press  and 
hurried  into.  Jim  likes  new 
clothes  but  thinks  it  an  out- 
rage to  wear  a  coat,  for  it  hides 
the  pride  of  his  heart — his  new 
suspenders.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  one  of  these  little  "dark- 
ies"' gets  a  pair  of  new  "gal- 
luses," for  these  articles  are 
generally  handed  down  in  the 
family,  and  by  the  time  they 
reach  tiie  youngest  are  usually 
only  one  strap.  But  to-day 
Jim's  suspenders  are  secondary 
in  im])ortauce  to  the  circus 
with  its  animals  and  clowns, 
and  the  coat  is  buttoned  tight 
under  his  chin  to  keep  the 
precious  ticket  from  falling 
out. 

Jim  gone,  I  go  out  to  lock 
the  stable  and  give  the  cow  an 
unusually  good  supper,  as  I 
know  that  on  the  morrow  she 
will  have  to  be  the  poor  horse 
while  Jim  plays  clown. 


I.  Rewrite  the  following  themes  in  suitable  paragraphs. 
If  topic-sentences  are  needed,  supply  them: 

AUTOBIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  Naticy  Lee 
1.  I  was  once  the  largest  and  finest  steamboat  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River  where  I  ran  between  New  Orleans  and  Memphis. 


PARAGRAPHING  73 

I  was  a  side-wheeler,  and  my  great  wheels  hardly  ever  stopped. 

My  owner,  Captain  Lee  of  Memphis,  Tennessee,  named  me 
after  his  daughter. 

It  used  to  take  a  long  time  to  load  me;  I  was  always  heavily 
loaded  with  bales  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  oranges. 

Many  a  moonlight  night  have  I  carried  a  number  of  young 
people,  who  danced  until  early  morning. 

One  daj',  as  I  was  bravely  steaming  up  the  river  against  the 
strong  current,  I  ran  into  a  snag;  I  was  stopped  so  suddenly, 
that  there  was  great  excitement  aboard.  People  ran  wildly 
about;  my  captain  was  hurriedly  giving  orders. 

Soon  the  machinery  was  put  in  motion,  and  I  backed  down 
the  river. 

It  was  a  miracle  that  a  hole  was  not  made  through  me.  I  lay 
in  Memphis  three  weeks  for  repairs. 

After  that  time  I  was  once  more  ready  for  use,  but  I  could  not 
travel  as  fast  as  before. 

About  a  year  after  the  accident,  as  I  was  going  down  the  river, 
I  struck  a  sandbar  and  there  I  stuck. 

My  owner  had  a  tug  sent  up  from  New  Orleans,  which  pulled 
me  off  the  bar.  I  was  dragged  to  the  nearest  beach  and  there 
left. 

I  was  beyond  repair. 

Months,  and  years  rolled  on,  and  I  still  lay  on  the  beach.  My 
planks  began  to  get  old  and  rotten,  and  my  machinery  began  to 
fall  apart. 

I  know  that  in  a  few  years,  I  shall  be  nothing  but  a  wreck. 

AN  INCIDENT   DURING   VACATION 

2.  One  cold  night  a  number  of  us  boys  Avent  over  on  the  hill  to 
coast.  There  was  a  full  moon,  and  it  made  the  hill  nearly  as 
light  as  day. 

The  hill  was  covered  with  ice,  and  tlie  bob-sleds  went  finelj^; 
the  largest  bob  went  as  far  as  the  railroad  tracks  on  Prospect 
Avenue. 

The  bob  that  I  rode  on  was  next  to  the  largest  and  went 
beyond  the  Presbyterian  church. 

The  bob  that  I  was  on  was  loaded  with  boys,  and  a  man  on  top 
of  the  hill  pushed  us  off.  It  seemed  as  if  we  were  flying,  we 
went  so  fast. 

Just  as  we  reached  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  the  boy  who  was 
watching  for  the  cars  signaled  that  one  was  coming. 


74  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

It  was  impossible  to  stop,  and  the  boy  who  was  steering  the 
bob  was  so  frightened  tliat  he  let  the  ropes  go ;  the  instant  he 
dropped  the  ropes  the  bob  swung  around  and  threw  us  all  into 
the  curbstone,  where  we  lay  a  few  minutes  before  we  could  col- 
lect our  senses. 

If  the  boy  had  not  dropped  the  ropes  when  he  did,  and  so 
stopped  the  bob,  some  of  us  would  probably  have  been  hurt. 

MY  RECOLLECTION   OP  THE   BATTLE   OF  WOUNDED  KNEE 

3.  In  the  spring  of  1890  I  happened  to  be  residing  in  the  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota,  a  dangerous  locality  at  that  time,  for  the 
Indians  were  on  the  war-path  and  were  threatening  destruction 
to  all  the  white  settlers.  Many  families  had  been  attacked  and 
massacred;  war-dances  were  of  nightly  occurrence ;  the  little 
towns  and  villages  were  in  imminent  danger.  The  United  States 
troops  had  been  called  out  to  quell  the  uprising,  but  to  our  sur- 
prise and  disappointment  the  Indians  had  evaded  them  and 
were  continuing  their  outrages  on  the  inhabitants.  Such 
was  the  state  of  affairs  when  early  one  April  morning  we 
were  startled  by  the  appearance  of  a  regiment  of  soldiers  in 
the  village,  who  at  once  became  the  center  of  an  anxious  and 
excited  crowd  made  up  of  all  the  citizens  in  the  town.  In 
response  to  our  inquiries,  they  told  us  that  they  were  on  their 
way  to  attack  the  "Red  Men,"  who  were  encamped  in  a  ravine 
only  two  miles  to  the  north.  When  we  had  heard  this,  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  danger  through  which  we  had  passed  during 
the  preceding  night  dawned  upon  us,  and  we  were  seized  with  a 
sort  of  panic.  The  presence  of  the  soldiers  alone  gave  us  cour- 
age. And  yet  even  on  them  we  could  not  depend  fully.  What 
if  they  should  not  be  victorious?  We  dreaded  to  think  of  the 
result  to  ourselves  and  the  surrounding  country.  They,  how- 
ever, did  not  seem  at  all  alarmed  but  marched  away,  boastful 
and  confident,  assuring  us  that  a  battle  would  surely  take  place 
before  evening.  We  watched  the  troops  until  they  had  disap- 
peared over  the  hill,  leaving  a  long  train  of  dust  behind  them; 
then  we  joined  the  little  group  of  peojjle  who  were  gathered 
in  tiie  street  to  await  the  result  and  to  console  each  other. 
About  five  o'clock  we  noticed  smoke  ascending  in  the  dis- 
tance. This,  with  the  far-off  sound  of  tlie  cannon  and  tlie 
occasional  echo  of  what  we  believed  to  be  a  war-whoop, 
announced  to  us  that  the  battle  liad  begun.  The  little  crowd 
huddled  together  almost  afraid-  to  look  in  the  direction  of  the 


PAEAGRAPHING  75 

battlefield,  for  fear  of  seeing  the  Red  Men  dash  over  the  hill 
and  down  upon  them.  Our  suspense  was  terrible  and  can  better 
be  imagined  than  described.  At  length  all  became  quiet,  and  it 
was  evident  that  the  struggle  was  over.  Still  we  kept  our  eyes 
fixed  on  the  hill  hoping  for  the  return  of  the  soldiers  or  for  some 
news  of  the  fight.  Darkness,  however,  soon  settled  upon  us,  and 
we  separated  and  witlidrew  to  our  respective  homes  without  the 
least  idea  of  who  had  been  the  victor  or  of  what  fate  held  in 
store  for  us.  I  did  not  even  try  to  rest  that  night,  for,  child 
though  I  was,  ray  anxiety  was  too  great  to  think  of  sleep ;  so  I 
sat  at  the  window  with  the  rest  of  the  family  staring  into  the 
darkness  and  starting  uj)  at  every  sound.  At  least  a  dozen  times 
during  the  night  we  went  down  the  street  to  see  if  any  news 
had  come.  But  morning  dawned  without  our  being  one  whit 
the  wiser,  and  worn  out  with  anxiety  I  fell  asleep.  The  next 
day  put  an  end  to  our  suspense.  A  decisive  battle  had  been 
fought  at  Wounded  Knee,  in  which  the  Indians  were  almost 
annihilated.  This  battle  ended  the  outbreak.  So  passed  the 
most  thrilling  experience  of  my  life,  one  which  was  to  leave  a 
lasting  impression  on  my  mind. 

/.  In  what  kind  of  writing  do  we  find  short  paragraphs'? 
Illustrate  from  the  books  read  in  the  classes  in  literature 
and  history.     For  what  reasons  are  these  paragraphs  short? 

K.  In  the  following  theme  are  the  paragraph  divisions 
well  made?     Why?     What  are  the  topic-sentences? 

"toby" 

"October  the  First,  King  of  the  Bow-wows,"  was  a  cocker 
spaniel  who  suff"ered  the  indignity  of  being  called  "Toby."  His 
beautiful  black  hair  was  very  soft  and  shiny,  and  was  partic- 
ularly long  on  his  legs  and  ears.  These  ears  were  so  long  that 
they  would  fold  around  his  nose  and  overlap,  and  sometimes  he 
would  almost  step  on  them  with  his  forefeet  when  he  ran  around 
smelling  on  the  ground.  His  eyes  were  an  indescribable  brown, 
but  when  he  was  in  the  dark,  they  would  give  out  a  strange 
greenish-yellow  light.  His  tail  was  cut,  leaving  a  stub,  which, 
although  it  was  short,  was  wonderfully  expressive.  In  short,  he 
was  the  kind  of  dog  that  would  make  you  turn  around  to  get 
another  look  at  him,  as  you  passed  him  on  the  street. 

But  Toby's  appearance  was  not  his  only  attraction.    lie  was  a 


76  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

polished,  gentlemanly  fellow,  with  many  accomplishments.  I 
cannot  begin  to  tell  all  of  his  acquirements,  but  I  can  speak  of 
one  or  two  that  will  show  a  little  of  his  education.  No  dog 
is  well  educated  unless  he  has  his  musical  ability  developed  to  a 
certain  extent.  Toby's  musical  development  was  remarkable, 
for  he  could  not  only  play  the  piano,  but  sing.  Whenever  his 
mistress  asked  him  to  "play  the  piano  and  sing,"  his  whole  atti- 
tude would  say,  "Oh,  no!  Let  someone  else.  I  do  it  too  often." 
But  when  she  continued  to  urge  him,  he  would  trot  to  the 
piano,  3ump  up  on  the  stool,  and  press  the  keys  with  his  paws,  at 
the  same  time  yelping  and  whining  like  a  true  canine  musi- 
cian. 

Toby  was  also  taught  to  think  for  himself.  He  showed  this 
fact  one  evening  when  a  company  of  his  mistress's  friends  had 
come  in  for  a  little  recreation.  His  mistress  was  showing  them 
some  of  his  accomplishments,  and,  as  she  sometimes  did,  siie 
told  him  to  "do  something  else" — though  she  didn't  specify 
what  it  should  be.  He  started  in  with  one  or  two  of  his  tricks, 
and  then  went  through  almost  all  his  repertoire.  But  his  mis- 
tress still  asked  for  "something  else."  Finally  the  little  fellow 
sat  down  in  a  bewildered  way  and  looked  around  the  room. 
Then  he  sat  still  for  a  while,  and  someone  shouted,  "See  him 
think,  fellows!  See  him  think!"  And  sure  enough,  in  a 
moment,  off  he  trotted,  to  do  something  that  he  had  not  tried. 

Another  time  when  "his  family"  were  gathered  in  their 
library  watching  him  do  some  of  his  tricks,  he  showed  that 
he  could  think.  Now  his  "papa,"  wlio  always  sat  in  a  particular 
chair  in  that  room,  was  not  there.  Toby,  however,  was  told  to 
"go  love"  his  papa.  Whenever  he  was  told  to  "love"  anyone, 
the  dog  would  jump  up  in  the  honored  person's  lap,  and,  putting 
his  paws  on  either  side  of  his  "lover's"  neck,  would  gently  lay  his 
head  on  one  of  them.  There  he  would  stay  till  he  was  told 
that  he  was  a  "dear  dog" — the  signal  that  the  loving  was  to  be 
discontinued.  So  Toby,  looking  around  the  room  to  find  his 
papa,  and  being  disappointed,  did  wliat  he  thought  was  the  next 
best  thing,  by  loving  his  papa's  chair. 

Toby's  self-control  was  by  no  means  a  small  part  of  his  edu- 
cation. Once  when  some  young  people  were  giving  a  series 
of  "Gibson  Tableaux,"  Toby  took  a  part  in  one  of  them.  He 
represented  the  dog  whose  case  was  thought  to  be  pitiable 
enough  for  the  "Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Ani- 
mals" to  relieve.     Before  the  curtain  was  raised  Toby  was  placed 


PAEAGRAPHINQ  77 

in  position,  and  a  piece  of  cracker  put  on  the  floor  in  front  of 
him,  which  lie  was  told  not  to  touch,  though  of  course  he  was 
ever  so  anxious  to  get  it. 

When  the  curtain  was  raised,  tliere  sat  the  little  dog  with  his 
eyes  glued  to  the  floor,  waiting  to  be  told  that  he  n\ight  have 
that  cracker.  Some  small  boys  in  the  audience  whistled  to  him, 
to  see  if  he  would  look  up  and  thus  prove  his  reality.  But  no, 
the  little  fellow  didn't  move.  It  was  only  when  the  audience 
made  a  tremendous  noise  by  clapping  that  he  looked  out  toward 
them  in  a  bewildered  way,  only  to  make  them  doubly  vigorous 
in  their  applause,  as  the  curtain  went  down. 

And  so  it  is  no  wonder,  whenever  he  met  any  of  his  "friends," 
while  he  was  out  walking,  that  they  said,  "Look!  There  is  the 
'summer  girl's'  dog — poor  fellow!" 

L.  Count  the  numbers  of  words  and  the  number  of 
sentences  in  each  paragraph  of  the  story  in  K  and 
compare  with  some  of  the  paragraphs  on  pp.  58-60. 
Why  are  these  latter  paragraphs  longer  than  those  in 
"Toby"? 

M.  Make  paragraph  divisions  for  the  following  narrative 
passages : 

1.  I  felled  a  cedar  tree:  I  question  much  whether  Solomon 
ever  had  such  a  one  for  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. It  was  five  feet  ten  inches  diameter  at  the  lower  part 
next  the  stump,  and  four  feet  eleven  inches  diameter  at  the  end 
*  of  twenty-two  feet,  after  which  it  lessened  for  a  while,  and  then 
parted  into  branches.  It  was  not  without  infinite  labor  that  I 
felled  this  tree.  I  was  twenty  days  hacking  and  hewing  it  at  the 
bottom;  I  was  fourteen  more  getting  the  branches  and  limbs 
and  the  vast  spreading  head  of  it  cut  off,  which  I  hacked  and 
hewed  through  with  axe  and  hatchet,  and  inexpressible  labor. 
After  this,  it  cost  me  a  month  to  shape  it  and  dub  it  to  a  propor- 
tion,  and  to  something  like  the  bottom  of  a  boat,  that  it  might 
swim  upright  as  it  ought  to  do.  It  cost  me  near  three  months 
more  to  clear  the  inside,  and  work  it  so  as  to  make  an  exact  boat 
of  it.  This  I  did,  indeed,  without  fire,  by  mere  mallet  and 
chisel,  and  by  the  dint  of  hard  labor,  till  I  had  brought  it  to  be 
a  very  handsome  "periagua,"  and  big  enough  to  have  carried  six 
and  twenty  men,  and,  consequently,  big  enough  to  have  carried 
me  and  all  my  cargo.     When  I  had  gone  through  this  work,  I 


78  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

was  extremely  delighted  with  it.  The  boat  was  really  much 
bigger  than  I  ever  saw  a  canoe  or  periagua,  tliat  was  made  of  one 
tree,  in  my  life.  Many  a  weary  stroke  it  had  cost,  you  may  be 
sure;  and  there  remained  nothing  but_to  get  it  into  the  water; 
and  had  I  gotten  it  into  the  water,  I  make  no  question  but  I 
sliould  have  begun  the  maddest  voyage,  and  the  most  unlikely  to 
be  performed,  that  ever  was  undertaken.  But  all  my  devices  to 
get  it  into  the  water  failed  me,  though  they  cost  me  infinite 
labor,  too.  It  lay  about  one  hundred  yards  from  the  water,  and 
not  more ;  but  the  first  inconvenience  was,  it  was  up-hill  towards 
the  creek.  Well,  to  take  away  this  discouragement,  I  resolved 
to  dig  into  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  so  make  a  declivity. 
This  I  began,  and  it  cost  me  a  prodigious  deal  of  pains ;  but  who 
grudges  pains  that  have  their  deliverance  in  view?  But  when 
this  was  worked  through,  and  this  difficulty  managed,  it  was 
still  much  at  one,  for  I  could  no  more  stir  the~canoe  than  I  could 
the  other  boat.  Then  I  measured  the  distance  of  ground,  and 
resolved  to  cut  a  dock  or  canal  to  bring  the  water  up  to  the 
canoe,  seeing  that  I  could  not  bring  the  canoe  down  to  the 
water.  Well,  I  began  this  work,  and  when  I  began  to  enter 
into  it  and  calculate  how  deep  it  was  to  be  dug,  how  broad,  how 
the  stuff  was  to  be  thrown  out,  I  found  that  by  the  number  of 
hands  I  had,  being  none  but  my  own,  it  must  have  been  ten  or 
twelve  years  before  I  should  have  gone  through  with  it;  for  the 
shore  lay  high,  so  that  at  the  upper  end  it  must  have  been  at 
least  twenty  feet  deep ;  so  at  length,  though  with  great  reluct- 
ancy,  I  gave  this  attempt  over  also. — Defoe:   Robinson  Crusoe. 

2.  The  stillness  consequent  on  the  cessation  of  the  rum- 
bling and  labouring  of  the  coach,  added  to  the  stillness  of 
the  night,  made  it  very  quiet  indeed.  The  panting  of  the 
horses  communicated  a  tremulous  motion  to  the  coach,  as 
if  it  were  in  a  state  of  agitation.  The  hearts  of  the  pas- 
sengers beat  loud  enough  perliaps  to  be  heard ;  but  at  any 
rate,  the  quiet  pause  was  audibly  expressive  of  people  out 
of  breath,  and  holding  the  breath,  and  having  the  pulses 
quickened  by  expectation.  The  sound  of  a  horse  at  a  gallop 
came  fast  and  furiously  up  the  hill.  "So-ho!"  the  guard  sang 
out,  as  loud  as  he  could  roar.  "You  there!  Stand!  I  shall 
fire!"  The  pace  was  suddenly  checked,  and,  with  much  splash- 
ing and  floundering,  a  man's  voice  called  from  the  mist,  "Is  that 
the  Dover  mail?"      "Never  you  mind  what  it  is,"  the  guard 


PARAGRAPHI]SrG  79 

retorted.  "What  are  you?"  "7s  that  the  Dover  mail?"  "Why 
do  you  want  to  know?"  "I  want  a  passenger,  if  it  is."  "What 
passenger?"  "Mr.  Jarvis  Lorry."  One  passenger  showed  in  a 
moment  that  it  was  his  name.  The  guard,  the  coachman,  and 
the  two  other  passengers  eyed  him  distrustfully. — Dickens: 
Tale  of  Two  Cities. 


CHAPTER  V 

BUILDING   SENTENCES 

23.  Definition  of  the  Sentence. — As  a  rule,  we  think  not 
in  separate  words,  or  even  in  })hrases,  l)ut  in  groups  of 
words  called  sentences.  AVhat  is  a  sentence?  Evidently 
it  is  not  any  group  of  words.  The  words  "General 
Grant"  and  "troops"  stand  for  ideas,  but  not  for  com- 
plete thoughts.  Kor  does  the  phrase  "to  encamp  under 
the  trees  in  the  park"  make  a  complete  statement, 
although  it  expresses  a  more  complex  thought  than  the 
single  nouns.  Not  until  we  have  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate can  we  express  a  complete  thought;  e.  g. ,  "General 
Grant  ordered  the  troops  to  encamp  under  the  trees  in  the 
park."  Moreover,  two  complete  thoughts,  such  as,  "The 
night  was  cool,  we  rode  swiftly  along  the  silent  road," 
do  not  make  a  sentence  unless  united  grammatically.  The 
link  may  be  made  in  this  example  by  supplying  the  con- 
junctive word  "and,"  or  by  inserting  the  semicolon  to 
indicate  that  the  two  groups  of  Avords  are  independent 
grammatically.  A  sentence,  then,  is  the  expression  of  a 
complete  thought  by  means  of  words  that  are  united 
grammatically. 

24.  Groups  of  Words  That  Are  Not  Sentences. — It  would 
seem  to  be  a  very  simple  matter  to  make  complete  sen- 
tences, but  unless  the  writer  is  careful  he  will  punctuate 
as  sentences  such  groups  of  words  as  the  following: 

"A  long,  dusty  road  between  high  fields  that  extended 
into  the  dim  distance."  (Contains  no  finite  verb  in  the 
principal  clause.) 

"The  highest  part  of  the  plateau."     (A  phrase.) 


BUILDING    SEXTKN'CES        '  81 

"Though  I  didn't  mind  wl)ut  he  said/'  {A(U'pend- 
ent  chiuse  alone. ) 

"We  all  walked  rapidly,  the  sun  had  gone  dowii,  tliei-e 
Avere  no  houses."  (Complete  statements  that  are  ii.ot 
grammatically  joined.) 

This  last  form  of  blunder  (sometimes  called  the 
"comma  blunder")  is  exceedingly  common  in  the  work 
of  careless  or  ignorant  writers.  It  shows,  first,  an  igno- 
rance of  the  primary  laws  of  grammar,  and  is  often 
found  in  the  composition  of  persons  who  have  not  been 
trained  in  Latin,  where  the  necessity  for  relating  words  is 
more  evident  than  in  modern  languages.  Secondly,  it 
indicates  a  confused,  illogical  habit  of  thought.  When- 
ever it  is  found,  the  student  should  try  to  parse  the  sen- 
tence where  the  blunder  occurs.  He  will  find  that  his 
group  of  words  breaks  into  two  or  more  distinct  t^eii- 
ten-ces. 

Not  every  group  of  words  punctuated  as  a  sentence, 
however,  must  contain  a  subject  and  a^^redicatc.  Im- 
perative sentences  usually  lack  a  subject;  e.  g. : 

Stand  not  on  the  order  of  your  going,  but  go  at  once. 

Exclamatory  and  interrogative  phrases  may  be  set  oif  as 
distinct  sentences;  as: 

My  kingdom  for  a  horse ! 

And  the  black  knight?    What  of  hiin? 

Further  than  this,  we  find  good  writers  occasionally 
breaking  the  rule  made  above,  and  for  the  sake  of  some 
special  effect  to  be  gained,  punctuating  a  phrase  or  a 
clause  as  an  independent  sentence. 

The  bar  of  the  watch-guard  worked  through  the  buttonhole, 
and  the  watch  slid  quietly  on  to  the  carpet.  Where  the  bearer 
found  it  next  morning  and  kept  it. — Kipling. 

But  this  practice,  which  occurs  rarely  in  ordinary  prose, 
is  not  to  be  imitated.  It  is  safe  to  repeat  what  has  been 
said  before:  with  the  three  exceptions  noted,  every  sen- 


82  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

tence  should  contain  both  subject  and  predicate;  and 
every  sentence  should  satisfy  the  grammatical  test — that 
is,  its  words  should  be  bound  together  according  to  the 
laws  of  grammar. 

25.  Content  of  the  Sentence. — How  much  can  we  put 
into  one  sentence?  Wo  find  in  our  reading  sentences  oi 
all  lengths;  we  also  know  by  experiment  that  we  can 
enlarge  a  short  sentence  almost  indefinitely,  as  in  this 
illustration : 

1.  America  is  a  commonwealth. 

2.  America  is  a  commonwealth  of  commonwealths,  a  Repub- 
lic of  republics,  a  State  which  is  composed  of  otlier  states. 

3.  America  is  a  commonwealth  of  commonwealths,  a  Repub- 
lic of  republics,  a  State,  which,  while  one,  is  nevertheless  com- 
posed of  other  states  even  more  essential  to  its  existence  than  it 
is  to  theirs. 

^4.  America— I  call  'it  America  (leaving  out  of  sight  South 
America,  Canada,  and  Mexico)  in  order  to  avoid  using  at  this 
stage  the  term  United  States — America  is  a  commonwealth,  a 
Republic  of  republics,  a  State,  which,  while  one,  is  nevertheless 
composed  of  other  states  even  more  essential  to  its  existence 
than  it  is  to  theirs. — Beyce:  American  Commomvealth. 

Form  one  contains  four  words;  form  two,  eighteen; 
form  three,  thirty-two;  form  four,  fifty-six.  All  four 
forms  make  complete  grammatical  statements.  The 
original  idea  is  expanded,  however,  by  adding  to  it  other 
ideas  until  instead  of  a  sentence  of  four  words  we  have 
one  of  fifty-six. 

By  examining  a  number  of  sentences  taken  from  difl'er- 
ent  writers  we  shall  find  that  the  length  of  the  sentence 
may  vary  from  two  words  to  a  hundred  or  more.  The 
average  length  of  a  single  sentence,  however,  among  mod- 
ern writers  is  about  thirty  words.  But  as  there  are  many 
shorter  and  many  much  longer  sentences  in  every  writer's 
work,  this  fact  does  not  help  us  in  determining  how  long 
to  make  any  given  sentence.  For  example,  in  the  final 
form  of  the  illustration  given  above,  there  are  eleven  dis- 


BUILDING   SEKfEKCES  83 

tinct  statements  and  fifty-six  words,  yet  it  is  as  good 
a  sentence  as  the  first  form,  where  there  is  but  one 
statement,  made  in  four  words.  However,  if  we  should 
try  to  add  to  the  last  form  many  more  words,  we  should 
soon  find  that  the  mind  would  not  grasj)  quickly  all  the 
ideas — the  sentence  Avould  not  be  clear.  A  single  sen- 
tence, then,  may  contain  as  many  words  as  can  be  related 
grammatically ,  and,  further,  as  many  ideas  as  can  be 
expressed  clearly  in  one  unit  of  thought.-^ 

26.  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  Sentences. — "A 
simple  sentence  contains  only  a  single  statement,  com- 
mand, or  question.  A  complex  sentence  contains  one 
simple  or  principal  statement,  command,  or  question, 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses.  A  compound  sen- 
tence contains  two  or  more  principal  statements,  fre- 
quently united  by  conjunctions.  Each  principal  statement 
of  the  compound  sentence  may,  however,  be  accompanied 
by  subordinate  clauses.  Such  sentences  may  be  called 
complex-compound." — Carpenter:  P?'inciples  of  Eng- 
lish Gram  7)1  ar. 

In  forming  sentences,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  we  make  them  simple,  compound,  or  complex  in 
form.  Each  form  has  its  peculiar  use  in  expressing  the 
relation  of  the  ideas  in  the  sentence.  When  the  simple 
sentence  is  employed,  but  one  statement  can  be  made ;  e.g., 
"The  room  is  quite  bare."  The  compound  sentence 
expresses  two  or  more  statements,  which  are  equal  in 
value;  e.g.,  "The  room  is  quite  bare,  and  it  is  uncar- 
peted. "  In  the  complex  sentence,  one  or  more  statements 
are  subordinated  to  the  main  proposition;  e.  g. ,  "The 
room,  which  is  uncarpeted,  is  quite  bare."  The  follow- 
ing passage  shows  the  proper  use  of  the  last  form — the 
complex-compound : 

>  Ideas  which  are  not  related,  or  only  vaguely  related,  naturally  destroy 
clearness,  no  matter  how  short  the  sentence  is.  For  this  subject  see  sec- 
tions 119,  120,  122.  123. 


84  COMPOSITION  a:n-i)  rhetoric 

The  father  of  the  Custom  House— the  patriarch,  not  only 
of  this  little  squad  of  officials,  but,  I  am  bold  to  say,  of 
the  respectable  body  of  tide-waiters  all  over  the  United 
States — was  a  certain  permanent  Inspector.  He  might  truly 
be  termed  a  legitimate  son  of  the  revenue  sj'stem,  dyed  in 
the  wool,  or,  rather,  born  in  the  purple;  since  his  sire,  a 
Revolutionary  colonel,  and  formerly  collector  of  the  port, 
had  created  an  office  for  him,  and  appointed  him  to  fill 
it,  at  a  period  of  the  early  ages  which  few"  living  men  can  now 
remember.  This  Inspector,  when  I  first  knew  him,  was  a  man 
of  fourscore  years,  or  thereabouts,  and  certainly  one  of  the 
most  wonderful  specimens  of  winter-green  that  you  would  be 
likely  to  discover  in  a  lifetime's  .search. — Hawthorne:  The  Cus- 
tom House. 

27.  Advantages  of  Compound  and  Complex  Sentences. — 

All  ideas  might  be  expressed  in  simjile  sentences.  The 
long  sentence  from  IMr.  Bryce  on  page  82  might  have 
been  composed  in  this  form : 

1.  I  call  the  country  America.  2.  I  mean  that  part  of  America 
not  included  in  South  America,  Canada,  and  Mexico.  3.  For  I 
do  not  wish  to  use  at  this  stage  the  term  United  States. 
4.  America,  then,  is  a  commonwealth.  5.  Moreover,  it  is  a  com- 
monwealth of  commonwealths.  6.  It  is  a  State  of  states.  7.  It 
is  a  Republic  of  republics.  8.  It  is  one.  9.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
composed  of  other  states.  10.  These  are  essential  to  its  exist- 
ence. 11.  They  are  even  more  essential  to  its  existence  than  it 
is  to  theirs. 

But  this  manner  of  expressing  ideas  in  simple  sentences 
is  awkward  and  necessitates  tiresome  repetition.  In  the 
original  form,  by  the  use  of  grammatical  devices,  these 
eleven  simple  sentences  are  condensed  into  one  complex 
sentence,  and  the  length  of  the  whole  is  reduced  from 
eighty-six  to  fifty-six  words.  In  both  cases  the  thought 
is  essentially  the  same. 

There  is  a  better  reason,  however,  why  Mr,  Bryce's 
form  is  preferable  to  the  other:  in  the  complex  sentence, 
the  relationship  between  the  ideas  is  shown;  in  the 
detached   sentences,  the   reader  has   to   make   the   rela- 


BUILDIXG    SENTENCES  85 

tionship  clear  for  himself.  In  the  complex  sentence, 
the  ideas  that  are  of  less  importance  are  placed  in  ^^nim- 
portant  clauses,  whereas  in  the  simple  sentences  all  the 
ideas  have  apparently  the  same  value.  By  the  use  of  com- 
pound and  complex  sentences,  then,  a  writer  shows  the 
connection  and  the  comparative  value  of  his  ideas.  The 
more  mature  and  difiicult  his  thought  is,  the  more 
(art'fully  are  his  sentences  constructed  to  reveal  the 
rch', tionship  between  his  ideas,  and  the  more  he  will  use 
ci)m})0und  and  comi)]ex  sentences.  The  cliild  says, 
''chair,  cushion,  beautiful";  next,  "chair  is  beautiful, 
cushion  is  beautiful";  then,  "the  chair  is  beautiful  and 
the  cushion  is  beautiful";  finally,  "the  chair  and  tlie 
cushion  are  both  beautiful."  This  art  of  fitting  thoughts 
together  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  whether  they  are  inde- 
pendent, of  equal  value,  or  one  principal  and  the  others 
subordinate,  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps  in  learn- 
ing hov/  to  write. 

28.  Variety  in  Sentence  Forms  Needed. — The  use  of 
many  short  simple  sentences  and  of  straggling  compound 
sentences,  where  the  statements  are  tied  together  loosely 
by  "and's,"  "hut's,"  "or's,"  "winch's,"  and  similar 
conjunctive  words,  shows  that  the  writer  does  not  possess 
the  necessary  variety  of  forms  or  molds  in  which  to  cast 
his  thought.  Out  of  a  number  of  nouns  and  verbs,  Aviih 
the  aid  of  a  few  conjunctions,  usually  coordinate,  he 
builds  sentences  that  are  monotonous  and  awkward. 
To  remedy  this  fault  he  must  inake  himself  familiar  with 
the  many  different  sentence -forms  used  by  experienced 
writers.  At  first  these  will  seem  difiicult  to  manage;  but 
after  sufficient  practice  in  using  longer  and  more  complex 
sentences  they  Avill  come  unconsciously  when  required  by 
the  thought  to  be  expressed.  A  variety  of  useful  forms 
may  be  learned  by  copying  into  a  notebook  any  sentence 
the  student  finds  that  illustrates  a  new  arrangement  of 


8C  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

the  simple  elements,  and  then  imitating  the  form  in  a 
new  sentence.  This  exercise  may  seem  artificial  at  first, 
but  with  the  form  once  thoroughly  known,  it  will  no 
longer  be  necessary  to  think  of  the  model. 

A  few  of  the  sentence-forms  most  commonly  used  are 
given  below : 

1.  As  Ave  expected  our  landlord  the  next  day,  my  wife  went 
to  make  the  venison  pasty. — Goldsmith. 

This  contains  an  introductory  causal  clause,  followed 
by  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  same  kind  oi 
thought  may  be  expressed  by  a  clause  following  the  prin- 
cipal statement;  as,  "My  wife  went  to  make  the  venison 
pasty,  for  we  expected  our  landlord  the  next  day. "  Sim- 
ilar sentences  may  be  constructed  with  the  causal  con- 
junctions "since,"  "because,"  "for  the  reason  that,"  and 
"inasmuch  as,"  and  also  with  the  participles;  as,  "Hav- 
ing found  out  the  easiest  way,  we  arrived  at  our  destina- 
tion before  dark." 

2.  If  I  go  with  him,  if  I  do  make  the  sacrifice  he  urges,  I  will 
make  it  absolutely. — Bronte. 

Here  a  conditional  clause  precedes  the  main  statement. 
The  second  conditional  clause  is  an  explanation  of  the 
first,  and  is  in  apposition  with  it.  The  sentence  may  be 
expanded  by  adding  phrases  or  clauses  to  either  part ;  as, 
"If  I  do  go  with  him,  as  you  have  urged, — "  etc. 

3.  This,  and  other  measures  of  precaution,  I  took. 

For  the  sake  of  emphasis,  the  elements  of  this  sentence 
are  transposed,  the  object  coming  first.  This  form  is 
useful  when  the  writer  wishes  to  make  an  emphatic  state- 
ment. 

4.  By  such  exertions  as  we  have  described,  Johnson  supported 
himself  till  the  year  1763.— Macaulay. 

A  part  only  of  the  predicate  is  transferred  to  the  first  of 
the  sentence  for  emphasis. 


BUILDIKG    SENTENCES  87 

5.  He  was  chiefly  marked  as  a  gentleman — if  such,  indeed,  he 
made  any  claim  to  be — by  the  rather  remarkable  whiteness  and 
nicety  of  his  linen. — Hawthorne. 

Here  the  predicate  is  interrupted  by  a  clause  which  is 
wholly  parenthetical.  This  form  serves  to  bind  together 
matters  not  closely  related,  or  digressions.  See  also  the 
sentence  from  Bryce,  page  82,  where  the  parenthesis 
occurs  in  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

6.  Men,  like  nails,  lose  their  usefulness  when  they  lose  their 
direction  and  begin  to  bend ;  such  nails  are  then  thrown  into  the 
dust  or  into  the  furnace. — Landor. 

This  compound  form — consisting  of  two  short  sen- 
tences— is  useful  where  the  two  statements  are  closely 
connected  in  thought  and  may  be  made  parallel  in  form. 

7.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say 
here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. — Lincoln. 

This  is  similar  to  number  six,  except  that  the  two  parts 
are  contrasted  or  opposed  in  thought  instead  of  being 
parallel. 

8.  The  street  is  Pyncheon  street ;  the  house  is  the  old  Pyncheon 
house ;  and  an  elm  tree,  of  wide  circumference,  rooted  before  the 
door,  is  familiar  to  every  town-born  child  by  the  title  of  the 
Pyncheon  elm.— Hawthorne. 

This  is  an  extension  of  form  six.  Note  how  easily  one 
member  of  the  compound  sentence  may  be  expanded,  as 
in  the  last  member  of  this  example.  The  conjunction 
"and"  between  the  last  two  members  may  be  omitted  at 
the  discretion  of  the  writer. 

9.  He  ransacked  his  father's  shelves,  dipped  into  a  multitude 
of  books,  read  what  was  interesting,  and  passed  over  what  was 
dull— SOUTHEY. 

This  form  is  a  useful  one  for  the  rapid  narration  of  a 
number  of  coordinate  events.  One  subject  answers  for  a 
number  of  verbs  with  their  objects  and  modifiers.  The 
tenses  and  the  phrases  should  be  kept  uniform. 


88  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

10.  Imagine  a  cottage  of  two  stones  with  a  bench  before  the 
door,  the  stable  and  kitchen  in  a  suite  so  that  the  donkey  and  I 
couki  hear  each  other  dining;  furniture  of  the  plainest,  earthen 
floors,  a  single  bed-chamber  for  travellers,  and  that  without  any 
convenience  but  beds. — Stevensox. 

This  is  an  imperative  sentence,  where  all  the  expansion 
occurs  in  the  j)redicate. 

11.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task 
remaining  before  us— that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take 
increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last 
full  measure  of  devotion;  that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these 
dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain ;  that  this  nation  imder  God 
shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom;  and  that  government  of  the 
people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  jjeople,  shall  not  perish  from 
the  earth. — LixcoLX. 

One  simple  statement  is  amplified  by  a  number  of 
explanator}^  clauses,  which  are  coordinate  in  thought  and 
form  and  are  separated  by  semicolons. 

12.  Her  aims  were  simple  and  obvious, — to  pi-eserve  her 
throne,  to  keep  England  out  of  war,  to  restore  civil  and  religious 
order.— Greex. 

This  form  is  similar  to  number  eleven;  but  phrases, 
instead  of  clauses,  are  arranged  in  parallel  form.  Either 
eleven  or  twelve  may  be  varied  by  transposition,  the 
proposition  being  stated  at  the  close,  as  in  the  following 
form : 

13.  Thus  not  to  follow  your  leader  whithersoever  he  may 
think  proper  to  lead;  to  back  out  of  an  expedition  because  the 
end  of  it  frowns  dubious,  and  the  present  fruit  of  it  is  discom- 
fort; to  quit  a  comrade  on  the  road  and  return  home  without 
him: — these  are  tricks  which  no  boy  of  si)irit  would  be  guilty 
of.— Meredith. 

14.  The  great  barns  at  tlie  wayside  had  their  doors  thrown 
back,  displaying  the  dark  cool  space  within. — Pater. 

In  til's  form,  a  participle  is  used  to  subordinate  a  state- 
ment of  minor  importance.     The  sentence  can  be  varied 


BUILDING   SENTENCES  89 

by  placing  the  participial  phrase  before  or  after  the  main 
statement. 

Exercise  V 

A.  Divide  the  following  extracts  into  sentences  and 
punctuate  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  out  the 
thought  clearly : 

1.  [Ichabod  Crane  is  the  schoolmaster  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  a  little 
Dutch  settlement  in  a  glen  near  the  Hudson  River.  He  wishes 
to  court  Katrina  Van  Tassel,  the  daughter  of  a  wealthy  farmer 
of  the  region,  but  to  do  so  must  become  the  rival  of  Brom  Van 
Brunt,  the  athletic  hero  of  the  countryside.] 

To  have  taken  the  field  openly  against  his  rival  would  have 
been  madness  for  he  was  not  a  man  to  be  thwarted  in  his 
amours  any  more  than  that  stormy  lover  Achilles  Ichabod  there- 
fore made  his  advances  in  a  quiet  and  gently  insinviating  man- 
ner under  cover  of  his  character  as  singing  master  he  made 
frequent  visits  at  the  farmhouse  not  that  he  had  anything  to 
apprehend  from  the  meddlesome  interference  of  pai"ents  which 
is  so  often  a  stumbling-block  in  the  path  of  lovei's  Bait  Van  Tas- 
sel was  an  easy  indulgent  soul  he  loved  his  daughter  better  even 
than  his  pipe  and  like  a  reasonable  man  and  an  excellent  father 
let  her  have  her  way  in  everything  his  notable  little  wife  too  had 
enough  to  do  to  attend  to  her  housekeeping  and  manage  the 
poultry  for  as  she  sagely  observed  ducks  and  geese  are  foolish 
things  and  must  be  looked  after  but  gii'ls  can  take  care  of  them- 
selves thus  while  the  busy  dame  bustled  about  the  house  or  plied 
her  spinning  wheel  at  one  end  of  the  piazza  honest  Bait  would 
sit  smoking  his  evening  pipe  at  the  other  watching  tho  achieve- 
ments of  a  little  wooden  warrior  who  armed  v.'ith  a  sword  in  his 
hand  was  most  valiantly  fighting  the  wind  on  the  pinnacle  of 
the  barn  in  the  meantime  Ichabod  would  carry  on  his  suit  with 
the  daughter  by  the  side  of  the  spring  under  the  great  elm  or 
sauntering  along  in  the  twilight  that  hovir  so  favorable  to  the 
lover's  eloquence. — Irving:  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Holloio. 

2.  When  I  was  a  boy  there  was  but  one  permanent  ambition 
among  my  comrades  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River 
that  was  to  be  a  steamboatman  we  had  transient  ambitions  of 
other  sorts  but  they  were  only  transient  when  a  circus  came 


90  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

and  went  it  left  us  all  burning  to  become  clowns  the  first 
negro  minstrel  show  that  ever  came  to  our  section  left  us  all 
suffering  to  try  that  kind  of  life  now  and  then  we  had  a  hope 
that  if  we  lived  and  were  good  God  would  permit  us  to  be  pirates 
these  ambitions  faded  out  each  in  its  turn  but  the  ambition 
to  be  a  steamboatman  always  remained.  — TWxi.iN:  Life  on  the 
MissiHsippi. 

3.  It  was  gray  harsh  easterly  weather  the  swell  rose  pretty 
high  and  out  in  the  open  there  were  "skippers'  daughters" 
when  I  found  myself  at  last  on  the  divers'  platform  twenty 
pounds  of  lead  upon  each  foot  and  my  whole  person  swollen 
with  ply  on  ply  of  woolen  underclothing  one  moment  the  salt 
wind  was  whistling  round  my  nightcapped  head  the  next  I  vvas 
crushed  almost  double  under  the  weight  of  the  helmet  as  that 
intolerable  burthen  was  laid  upon  me  I  could  have  found  it  in 
my  heart  (only  for  shame's  sake)  to  cry  off  from  the  whole  enter- 
prise but  it  was  too  late  the  attendants  began  to  turn  the  hurdy- 
gurdy  and  the  air  to  whistle  through  the  tube  some  one  screwed 
in  the  barred  window  of  the  vizor  and  I  was  cut  off  in  a  moment 
from  my  fellow  men  but  time  was  scarce  given  me  to  realize  my 
isolation  the  weights  were  hung  upon  my  back  and  breast  the 
signal  rope  was  thrust  into  my  unresisting  hand  and  setting  a 
twenty-pound  foot  upon  the  ladder  I  began  ponderously  to 
descend.  — Stevenson. 

B.  Why  are  the  following  groups  of  words  not  sen- 
tences?    Kewrite  them  as  grammatical  units: 

1.  If  we  look  at  Sir  Roger  we  can  see  a  fair  example  of  Addi- 
son's skill  as  a  describer  in  a  few  strokes  he  has  portrayed  us  a 
character  at  once  peculiar,  pleasing,  and  congenial  to  our  tastes. 

3.  The  moral  of  each  of  his  stories  can  easily  be  fovmd,  just 
take  for  instance  the  way  he  treats  the  superstitions  of  the 
people. 

8.  He  was  very  lenient  about  people's  not  being  on  time. 
Principally  because  he  was  always  late  himself. 

4.  The  stranger  blamed  himself  severely.  Which  was  not 
doing  himself  justice. 

5.  Milton  wrote  many  poems  in  his  youth.  The  best  known 
being  II  Peii.scroso,  L'Alle(jro,  Lycidas.  and  Comvs. 

6.  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  was  a  good  churchman,  he  attended 
church  every  Sunday. 


BUILDING    SENTENCES  91 

7.  The  driver  cracked  his  whip  loudly,  he  seemed  to  be  anx- 
ious to  start. 

8.  Agnes  did  a  great  deal  for  David  Copperfield,  David  recog- 
nizing her  sympathetic  nature,  and  early  learned  to  look  upon 
her  as  a  sister. 

9.  One  day  while  Ichabod  Crane  was  teaching,  a  little'darky 
?3ame  to  him  and  gave  him  an  invitation  to  go  to  a  party,  so  the 
V)ooks  were  slung  aside  and  school  dismissed. 

10.  Two  glances  convinced  him  that  there  was  no  one  here, 
the  kitchen  was  as  he  had  seen  it  last. — Barrie. 

1 1.  Which  proves  that  wlien  a  man  does  good  work  out  of  all 
proportion  to  his  pay,  in  seven  cases  out  of  nine  there  is  a  woman 
at  the  back  of  the  virtue. — Kipling. 

12.  The  doctor  went  to  the  inside  of  the  window  and  looked 
in,  he  could  see  nothing  but  his  own  reflection  in  the  mirror  and 
was  completely  puzzled. — Barrie. 

C.  Eewrite  these  groups  of  words  in  larger  sentence- 
units.     AVhat  change  in  the  thought  takes  phice? 

1.  At  fii'st  the  feeling  between  the  citizens  and  the  soldiers  was 
friendly,  but  this  friendliness  did  not  last  long.  The  Bostonians 
did  not  conceal  their  indignation  at  the  presence  of  the  military; 
the  soldiers  in  their  turn  began  to  treat  the  townspeople  with 
contumely.  The  very  children  took  part  in  the  quarrel.  The 
soldiers  destroyed  the  snowslides  they  had  made  for  their  sleds. 
A  deputation  of  boys  waited  ui^on  the  British  general  to  com- 
plain of  this  conduct.  The  general  asked  them  if  their  fathers 
had  sent  them  to  disjjlay  tlieir  rebellious  spirit.  The  boys'  leader 
answered  that  no  one  had  sent  them,  that  they  had  come  of 
their  own  accord,  as  they  would  no  longer  bear  the  destruction 
of  their  snowslides.  The  general  gave  orders  that  the  damage 
should  be  made  good,  declaring  that  it  was  im^wssible  to  beat 
the  idea  of  liberty  out  of  a  people  who  had  it  so  firmly  rooted  in 
them  in  childhood. — McCarthy. 

2.  Some  of  the  men  were  nervous.  One  lieutenant  was  surly, 
and  another  sang  softly  to  himself.  I  was  told  afterward  that 
Howard,  on  the  "Concord,"  was  found  reading  his  Bible.  But 
Dewey  led  right  ahead.  If  he  feared  mines  he  did  not  show  it. 
Evidently  he  had  faith  in  the  insurgent  chief,  who  was  acting  as 
his  pilot.  So  on  he  went.  There  was  nothing  more  to  be  done. 
The  ships  had  been  cleared  for  action  long  before.    Only  the 


93 


COMPOSITION"    AND   RHETORIC 


most  perfunctory  orders  were  given.  Tlie  dawn  came  out  of  the 
black  suddenly.  Then  we  saw  that  the  "old  man"  knew  just 
what  he  was  about  all  the  time.  Right  ahead  of  us  lay  the 
Spanish  fleet  and  the  Cavite  forts.  Far  up  the  bay  was  Manila. 
We  were  in  for  it. 

D.  Study  the  following  sentences.     Why  are  the  forms 
in  the  second  column  to  be  preferred  to  those  in  the  first? 


1.  After  I  had  graduated 
from  the  high  school  I  found 
that  I  was  woefully  deficient 
in  rhetoric  and  English  com- 
position. I  immediatel}'  set  to 
work  to  remedy  the  evil.  I 
got  a  copy  of  Hill's  Founda- 
tions of  rhetoric  and  started  to 
study  it.  I  also  read  "Words 
and  their  meanings."  I  read 
a  number  of  books  paying  es- 
l)ecial  attention  to  style. 
Among  the  books  were  Wood 
stock,  Silas  Marner,  Romola, 
Mill  on  the  Floss,  Waverley, 
The  Spectator,  Last  of  the 
Barons.  I  also  wrote  sketches 
of  the  different  characters  I 
came  across  in  the  books.  My 
Ijrother,  a  college  graduate, 
corrected  them"  for  me.  In 
this  way  I  was  enabled  to  pass 
the  university  examinations 
after  a  good  deal  of  trouble. 

2.  I  got  off  the  train  at  .S:in 
Jose  and  went  to  the  Vendome 
Hotel.  Tiie  remninder  of  the 
journey  was  to  be  made  by 
means  of  a  stage,  which  was 
to  start  from  this  hotel.  I 
seated  myself  on  the  piazza 
until  it  was  time  to  start. 
The  beautiful  grounds  plea.sed 


Finding,  after  I  had  gradu- 
ated from  the  high  school, 
that  I  was  woefully  deficient 
in  rhetoric  and  English  com- 
position, I  immediately  set  to 
work  to  remedy  the  evil.  As 
a  first  step  I  studied  Hiirs 
Foundations  of  Rhetoric  and 
Words  and  Their  Meanings. 
Then,  with  especial  attention 
to  style,  I  read  a  number  of 
books  —  among  them  Wood- 
stock, Silas  Marner,  Romola, 
Mill  on  the  Floss,  Wavcrlc)/, 
TJie  Spectator,  and  The  Last 
of  the  Barons.  I  also  wrote 
sketches  of  the  different  char- 
acters I  came  across  in  the 
books,  and  these  my  brother, 
a  college  graduate,  corrected 
for  me.  In  this  way  I  was  en- 
abled, after  a  good  deal  of 
trouble,  to  pass  the  university 
examinations. 

Getting  off  the  train  at  San 
Joso,  I  went  to  the  Vendome 
Hotel,  from  which  the  stage 
that  was  to  take  us  the  rest  of 
tlie  journey  was  to  start.  The 
intervening  time  passed  pleas- 
antly, for  as  I  sat  on  the  piazza 
I  got  a  view  of  the  beautiful 
grounds,   and   was   interested 


BUILDING    SENTENCES 


93 


me.  I  was  interested  and 
amused  by  the  peojDle  on  the 
piazza.  It  seemed  as  if  every 
one  about  the  place  was  going 
on  some  pleasure  trip.  It  was 
riding,  driving,  or  Mount 
Hamilton. 

3.  At  eight  o'clock  the  pro- 
fessor received  the  party. 
Everything  about  the  place 
was  shown  to  us  and  explained. 
Through  the  smaller  telescope 
I  looked  at  the  moon.  From 
the  small  telescope  I  went  to 
the  room  where  the  large  tele- 
scope is  kept.  I  waited  an  hour 
before  my  time  came  to  look 
through  the  glass.  Through 
the  large  telescope  I  saw  Sat- 
urn and  his  many  satellites. 
The  rings  could  be  seen  very 
plainly. 

4.  Villon  could  see  only  one 
way  to  get  a  lodging  and  that 
was  to  steal  it.  He  noticed  a 
house  not  far  away  and  it 
looked  dark  and  easy  to  get  in. 
He  went  to  the  door  and 
knocked  boldly.  In  a  few 
minutes  a  tall  man  appeared 
and  asked:  "Who  is  it?"  Then 
Villon  told  him  he  had  no 
place  to  go  for  the  night,  and 
that  he  was  very  cold  and 
hungry.  The  man  asked  him 
to  come  in  and  gave  him  a 
good  supper. 


and  amused  by  the  people 
around  me.  It  seemed  as  if 
every  one  about  the  place  was 
going  on  some  pleasure  trip — 
to  ride  or  drive,  or  to  visit 
Mount  Hamilton. 

At  eight  o'clock  the  party 
was  received  by  the  professor, 
who  showed  and  explained  to 
us  everything  about  the  place. 
Through  the  smaller  telescope 
I  looked  at  the  moon,  and  after 
waiting  an  hour  for  my  turn,  I 
saw  through  the  large  telescope 
Saturn  and  his  many  satel- 
lites. The  rings  could  be  seen 
very  plainly. 


Villon  could  see  only  one 
way  to  get  a  lodging — to  steal 
it.  Noticing  not  far  away  a 
house  which  looked  dark  and 
easy  to  enter,  he  went  to  the 
door  and  knocked  boldly.  In 
a  few  minutes  a  tall  man  ap- 
peared and  asked:  "Who  is 
itr'  When  Villon  told  him 
that  he  had  no  place  to  go  for 
the  night  and  that  he  was  very 
cold  and  hungry,  the  man 
asked  him  to  come  in  and  gave 
him  a  good  supper. 


E.  Find  in  the  books  you  are  reading,  ten  examples  of 
sentence-forms  that  show  some  variation  from  the  form* 
given  in  section 


94  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

F.  Complete  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Whatever  help  the  commander  may  have  rendered;  what- 
ever aid  the  elements  may  have  given,  the  soldier (Predicate 

with  clause). 

2.  (Conditional  clause) the  sun  would  be  at  our  right  and 

the  river  at  our  left. 

3.  (Causal  clause) therefore  we   determined  to  pass  the 

night  at  the  inn. 

4.  Though  this  was  my  first  experience  with  rod  and  line 

(Predicate  with  explanatory  clause). 

5.  The  beggar's  appearance  was  so  pitiful (Result  clause). 

6.  As  there  was  only  one  thing  to  be  done,  to  bear  our  own 
loss  with  fortitude (Result  clause). 

7.  They  liad  no  sooner  succeeded  in  attracting  our  attention 
(Complementary  '"than"'  clause). 

8.  (Conditional  clause) we  are  able  to  judge  intelligenth'. 

9.  It  is  one  of  the  first  duties  of  a  man (Explanatory  rela- 
tive clause,  followed  by  an  infinitive  construction). 

10.  Playing  football  does  not  so  much  require  strength (A 

balancing  "as"  clause). 

11.  With  the  hope  of  retrieving  past  blunders,  and  of  doing 
something  really  worth  while (Subject  and  predicate). 

12.  (Participial  clause  of  explanation) the  general  ordered 

liis  army  to  retreat. 

13.  This  kind  of  bravery — (Relative "clause  characterizing  the 
quality) — is  possessed  by  ahnost  every  healthy  boj*. 

14.  If  it  be  necessary  to  begin  to  practice  rowing  as  a  boy  in 
order  to  become  a  "crack  oarsman" (Conclusion). 

IT).  We  may  think  that  a  school  i)aper  takes  a  large  amount 
of  time (Antithetical  clause). 

G.  Rewrite  this  passage  in  several  long  sentences: 

BOMBAY 

Tlie  first  sight  of  India  is  amazing,  entrancing.  Of  other 
countries  you  becrome  aware  grailually.  Italy  leads  up  to  the 
Levant;  Eg^'pt  passes  you  on  insensibly  to  the  desert.  Landed 
in  Bombay,  a'ou  liave  strayed  into  a  most  elaborate  dream. 
It  is  a  gallery  of  strange  faces,  a  buzz  of  strange  voices,  a 
garden  of  strange  growths.  Dilferent  beasts  and  birds  in  the 
street,  different  clothes  to  wear,  different  meal  times,  and  differ- 
ent food — the  very  commonest  things  are  altered.  You  begin  a 
new  life  in  a  new  world. 


BUILDING   SENTENCES  95 

It  takes  time  to  come  to  yourself.  At  first  everything  is  so 
noticeable  that  you  notice  nothing.  You  pin  your  eyes  to  the 
little  fawn-colored,  satin-skinned,  humped  oxen  in  the  carts,  to 
the  blue  crows  that  dance  and  spar  in  the  gutters.  They  are 
the  very  commonest  things  in  India.  Just  because  they  are 
common  bullocks — yet  with  humps! — common  crows — yet  blue! 
— their  fascination  is  enthralling.  The  white  ducks  you  wear 
all  day  are  like  a  girl's  first  court  dress. — Stevens:  India.  (Con- 
densed.) 

H.  Make  several  shorter  sentences  from  this  one  com- 
plex sentence : 

He  gave  an  hundred  pounds  at  one  time  to  an  old  friend,  whom 
he  had  known  live  plentifully,  and  by  a  too  liberal  heart  and 
carelessness  became  decayed  in  his  estate ;  and  when  the  receiv- 
ing of  it  was  denied,  by  the  gentleman's  saying,  "He  w^anted 
not;" — for  the  reader  may  note,  that  as  there  be  some  spirits  so 
generous  as  to  labour  to  conceal  and  endure  a  sad  poverty, 
rather  than  expose  themselves  to  tho.se  blushes  that  attend  the 
confession  of  it ;  so  there  be  others,  to  wliom  nature  and  grace 
have  afforded  such  sweet  and  compassionate  souls,  as  to  pity 
and  prevent  the  distress  of  mankind; — which  I  have  mentioned 
because  of  Dr.  Donne's  reply,  whose  answer  was;  "I  know  you 
want  not  what  will  sustain  nature;  for  a  little  will  do  that;  but 
my  desire  is,  that  you,  who  in  the  days  of  your  plenty  have 
cheered  and  raised  the  hearts  of  so  many  of  your  dejected 
friends,  would  now  receive  this  from  me,  and  use  it  as  a  cordial 
for  the  cheering  of  your  own;''  and  upon  these  terms  it  was 
received. — Walton;  Life  of  Dr.  John  Donne, 


CHAPTER   VI 

HOW  TO  INCREASE  A  VOCABULARY 

29.  Advantages  of  Having  a  Large  Vocabulary. — When 
common  words  are  repeated  frequently  within  a  few  lines, 
the  reader  quickly  feels  the  monotony  and  narrowness  of 
the  writer's  vocabulary.  The  following  sentences,  for 
instance,  show  how  unpleasant  such  a  repetition  of  words 
may  make  even  very  simple  writing: 

MY   ROOM 

I  have  for  my  room  a  big  room  at  the  top  of  the  house,  which 
is  really  the  guest  room ;  but  it  happens  that  my  room  down- 
stairs is  occupied,  and  therefore  I  have  the  guest  room,  which  I 
like  much  better.  It  extends  the  width  of  the  house  from  front 
to  back,  and  has  six  windows  which  let  in  much  sun.  It  has 
a  fireplace  with  blue  tiles,  the  same  color  as  the  figures  on  the 
white  wall  paper.  Unfortunately  this  fireplace  smokes  very 
much  when  there  is  much  wind,  and  therefore  in  such  a  place 
as  Chicago  it  is  not  possible  to  use  it  much.  Next  to  the  fire- 
place is  a  little  bookcase  in  which  I  keep  niy  books,  and  next  to 
that  is  a  higli  window  seat  on  which  I  keep  the  books  I  use  very 
much  and  where  I  like  to  study.  I  am  afraid,  however,  that  I 
do  not  study  as  much  there  as  I  might  somewhere  else,  for  I  can 
see  all  that  goes  on  out  of  doors,  and  that  keeps  me  from  study- 
ing. In  the  front  end  of  the  room  is  a  large  round  table  that 
was  once  a  dining  table.  This  table  is  usually  covered  with 
books. 

The  repetition  of  the  words  *'room,"  "much,"  "is," 
and  "books"  betrays  either  carelessness  or  a  meager  store 
of  words.  The  difficulty  with  a  small  vocabulary,  how- 
ever, is  a  more  serious  matter  than  this  example  indicates : 
a  small  vocabulary  prevents  the  writer  from  expressing 
fully  all  that  lie  has  to  say.  Compare  these  two  descrip- 
tive passages : 

96 


HOW   TO    INCREASE    A    VOCABULARY  97 

1.  Mackinac  Island  is  a  small  island  north  of  the  soutliern 
peninsula  of  Michigan.  In  summer  time  it  is  a  favorite  place 
for  tourists  who  go  there  to  see  the  beautiful  scenery  and  other 
points  of  general  interest,  and  to  have  a  good  time  generally. 
There  are  a  number  of  soldiers  stationed  there,  who  guard  and 
take  care  of  the  place. 

The  first  thing  one  sees  when  one  gets  to  the  place  and  gets 
off  the  boat  is  the  large  white  hotel  called  the  Astor  House. 
This  hotel  was  built  by  old  John  Jacob  Astor  when  he  was 
gathering  fur  to  sell  to  the  furriers.  It  is  an  old-fashioned  hotel 
with  large  rooms  and  a  large  veranda  which  extends  along  the 
front. 

The  next  thing  people  go  to  see  is  a  rock  called  Lovers' 
Leap.  Off  this  rock  an  Indian  maiden,  when  she  heard  that 
her  lover  was  dead,  leaped  into  the  lake.  The  rock  is 
about  sixteen  feet  high  and  on  the  edge  of  the  lake,  extend- 
ing down  perpendicularly.  A  ladder  has  been  placed  on 
one  side  of  the  rock,  so  that  people  can  climb  to  the  top  of 
the  rock. 

The  guide  then  leads  one  to  another  rock  called  Sugar  Loaf 
Rock,  which  is  about  seventy-five  feet  high  and  shaped  nearly 
like  a  lump  of  sugar,  except  that  the  top  is  rounded.  There  are 
many  little  knobs  and  projections  by  which  many  boys  try  to 
climb  to  the  top. 

2.  About  six  miles  from  the  renowned  city  of  the  Manhattoes, 
in  that  sound  or  arm  of  the  sea  which  passes  between  the  main- 
land and  Nassau,  or  Long  Island,  there  is  a  narrow  strait,  where 
the  current  is  violently  compressed  between  shouldering  promon- 
tories and  horribly  perplexed  rocks  and  shoals.  Being,  at  the 
best  of  times,  a  very  violent,  impetuous  current,  it  takes  these 
impediments  in  mighty  dudgeon,  boiling  in  whirlpools;  brawling 
and  fretting  in  ripples ;  raging  and  roaring  in  rapids  and  break- 
ers; and,  in  short,  indulging  in  all  sorts  of  wrong-headed 
paroxysms.  At  such  times,  woe  to  any  unlucky  vessel  that 
ventures  within  its  clutches. 

This  termagant  humor,  however,  prevails  only  at  certain 
times  of  tide.  At  low  water,  for  instance,  it  is  as  pacific  a 
stream  as  you  would  wish  to  see ;  but  as  the  tide  rises  it  begins 
to  fret ;  at  half  tide  it  roars  with  might  and  main  like  a  bull 
bellowing  for  more  drink ;  but  when  the  tide  is  full  it  relapses 
into  quiet,  and,  for  a  time,  sleeps  as  soundly  as  an  alderman 
after  dinner.— Irving. 


98  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

The  first  passage,  like  tlie  description  of  the  room, 
seems  thin  and  bare  compared  with  Irving's  account  of 
"Hell  Gate."  It  is  not  merely  that  common  words  are 
repeated;  the  objects  mentioned  are  not  vividly  described, 
because  the  writer  evidently  does  not  possess  the  words 
to  apply  to  them.  His  tew  words  are  only  those  of  the 
kind  necessary  for  daily  intercourse.  The  second  pas- 
sage, on  the  other  hand,  contains  no  repeated  words. 
Irving  has  fresh  adjectives,  verbs,  and  nouns  for  each 
sentence.  Although  the  vocabulary  is  a  simple  one,  its 
variety  gives  the  charm  of  novelty.  Moreover,  Irving 
gets  more  out  of  his  subject  than  does  the  author  of 
"Mackinac  Island,"  not  necessarily  because  it  is  more 
suggestive  or  impressive,  but  because  he  has  words  to 
represent  its  every  feature.  Probably  the  author  of 
the  first  passage  could  not  number  more  than  five 
hundred  words  in  his  entire  vocabulary.  Irving  uses 
over  one  hundred  different  words  in  two  short  para- 
graphs. 

For  purposes  of  mere  existence,  a  few  hundred  over- 
worked words  will  answer  well  enough.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
however,  that  such  a  small  vocabulary  implies  a  narrow 
range  of  thought.  Words  represent  objects  and  ideas; 
generally  speaking,  a  man  of  few  ideas  has  few  words. 
As  a  rule,  a  man  who  has  at  the  most  a  thousand  terms 
for  expressing  his  wants,  his  feelings,  his  observations,  has 
fewer  wants,  feelings,  and  observations  than  the  man  Avho 
has  two  thousand  words  at  his  command. 

Most  of  us,  indeed,  feel  vaguely  this  need  of  words  to 
represent  half  formed  ideas,  or  to  distinguisli  different 
ideas  that  resemble  each  other  superficially.  Some  com- 
mon exclamations  betray  this:  "You  know  what  I  mean," 
"I  can't  think  of  tlie  right  word,"  or,  "Tlie  word  I  am 
after  will  come  to  me  in  a  moment."  The  right  word 
will  not  come,  however,  unless  the  speaker  has  at  some 


HOW   TO    INCREASE    A   YOCABULART  99 

time  seen  or  heard  it, — unless  he  has  lodged  it  in  his 
brain,  and  also  used  it. 

Again,  even  if  we  have  some  sort  of  word  to  answer  for 
our  idea,  it  may  not  be  the  exact  term  that  will  separate 
our  thought  from  many  others  nearly  like  it.  For  exam- 
ple, let  us  try  to  find  a  word  that  will  describe  a  poor 
man;  he  is  not  merely  poor,  this  man;  he  is  so  habitually 
and  absolutely  without  means  that  the  general  term  is 
not  strong  enough.  Is  he,  then,  a  beggar?  No,  because 
the  term  "beggar"  indicates  something  besides  poverty; 
it  indicates  a  particular  way  of  supplying  the  man's 
needs.  This  man,  who  is  habitually  and  absolutely  poor, 
who  belongs  to  a  class  of  the  poor  that  will  always  be 
poor,  supplies  his  needs  in  another  way;  he  is  a  vauper. 
That  shade  of  meaning  is  now  firmly  established. 

Moreover,  the  writer  is  not  the  only  one  who  needs  a 
large  vocabulary.  If  the  writer  must  have  many  words 
to  define  his  thought,  the  reader  must  have  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  words  in  order  to  get  all  the  distinctions 
that  the  writer  intends  to  convey. 

To  sum  up,  we  should  try  to  get  a  wide  vocabulary: 
first,  because  words  represent  wealth  of  thought — 
the  more  symbols  the  more  ideas;  second,  because 
if  we  have  several  words  which  represent  very  nearly 
the  same  thought,  we  can  express  exactly  what  we 
do  mean  more  clearly  than  if  we  have  only  one  (e.  g., 
woman,  lady,  mother;  house,  residence,  home;  contrive, 
make,  experiment) ;  third,  because  variety  rests  the  read- 
er's mind  and  gives  enjoyment;  fourth,  because  the  pos- 
session of  many  words  aids  us  to  understand  exactly 
writers  who  use  many  words  to  express  their  ideas. 
When  the  reader  has  only  a  vague  idea  of  the  words  used, 
much  valuable  thought  is  misunderstood,  or  but  half 
understood.  In  short,  add  to  your  store  of  words  in 
order  that  you   may  have  a  richer  mental  life  and  that 


100  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

you  ma}'  never  be  at  a  loss  for  the  right  word  when  you 
want  it. 

30.  Two  Kinds  of  Vocabularies. — It  is  a  commonplaco 
that  we  understand  many  words  which  we  never  use.  If 
it  were  otherwise,  much  that  we  read  would  be  incom- 
prehensible to  us.  The  following  paragraph  contains 
at  least  a  dozen  words  that  we  use  rarely  or  never,  and 
yet  we  understand  easily  the  sense  of  every  statement: 

It  seems  as  if  a  great  deal  were  attainable  in  a  world  where 
there  are  so  many  marriages  and  decisive  battles,  and  where 
we  all,  at  certain  hours  of  the  day,  and  with  great  gusto  and 
despatch,  stow  a  portion  of  victuals  finally  and  irretrievably 
into  the  bag  which  contains  us.  And  it  would  seem  also,  on  a 
hast}^  view,  that  the  attainment  of  as  much  as  possible  was  the 
one  goal  of  man's  contentious  life.  And  yet,  as  regards  the 
spirit,  this  is  but  a  semblance.  We  live  in  an  ascending  scale 
when  we  live  happily,  one  thing  leading  to  another  in  an  endless 
series.  Tliere  is  always  a  new  horizon  for  onward- looking  men, 
and  although  we  dwell  on  a  small  planet,  immersed  in  petty 
business  and  not  enduring  beyond  a  brief  period  of  years,  we  are 
so  constituted  that  our  hopes  are  inaccessible,  like  stars,  and  the 
term  of  hoping  is  prolonged  until  the  term  of  life. — Stevenson. 

There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  use  in  speech 
and  writing  such  words  as  "attainable,"  "decisive," 
"gusto,"  "despatch,"  "irretrievably,"  "contentious," 
"semblance,"  "ascending,"  "immersed,"  "constituted," 
"inaccessible," — not  one  of  which  is  really  bookish.  Yet, 
although  not  unfamiliar  wh-en  we  see  them,  they  do  not 
come  readily  to  hand  when  we  are  using  words.  Another 
passage,  this  time  from  Mr.  Bryce,  who  is  discussing  a 
characteristic  of  the  American  people,  will  further  illus- 
trate this  point : 

The  long-suffering  tolerance  of  public  opinion  towards  incom- 
petence and  misconduct  in  officials  and  public  men  generally  is 
a  feature  wliic^h  has  struck  recent  European  observers.  It  is  the 
more  remarkable  because  nowhere  is  executive  ability  more 
valued  in  the  management  of  private  concerns,  in  which  the 


HOW   TO    IliCREASE    A    VOCABULARY  101 

stress  of  competition  forces  everj'  manager  to  secure  at  what- 
ever price  the  most  able  subordinates.  We  may  attribute  it 
partly  to  the  good  nature  of  the  people,  which  makes  them  over- 
lenient  to  nearly  all  criminals,  partly  to  the  preoccupation  with 
their  private  affairs  of  the  most  energetic  and  useful  men,  who 
therefore  can  not  spare  time  to  unearth  abuses  and  get  rid  of 
offenders,  partly  to  an  indifference  induced  by  the  fatalistic 
sentiment  which  I  have  already  sought  to  describe. 

Mr.  Bryce  has  not  used  a  word  that  all  can  not  under- 
stand readily,  yet  how  rarely  do  we  hear  these  exact  terms 
in  daily  speech  or  find  them  in  the  sentences  of  ordinary 
writers !  The  first  step  in  our  effort  toward  acquiring  a 
large  vocabulary  should  he  to  make  our  passive  word-store 
into  a  useful  ivorking  word-store. 

31.  Use  of  the  Vocabulary  Notebook. — Some  people  easily 
remember  words  once  heard  or  seen,  and  seem  to  take  pleas- 
ure in  using  them.  For  such  persons,  no  special  effort  is 
needed;  reading  will  add  gradually  to  their  stock  of  words. 
Most  of  us,  however,  read  more  or  less  heedlessly,  con- 
tenting ourselves  with  a  passing  acquaintance  with  unfa- 
miliar words.  The  first  step,  then,  is  to  be  sure  that  we 
really  understand  the  words  we  see.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  keep  a  special  notebook  for  words  and 
to  enter  in  it  a  few  new  wc  rds  each  week.  It  will  not  be 
enough  merely  to  copy  t^e  words  in  the  notebook, 
although  even  that  practice  will  help  one  in  acquiring  a 
vocabulary.  Each  word  should  be  followed  by  as  many 
of  its  meanings  as  the  student  knows  Avithout  the  aid  of 
the  dictionary.  Later,  he  should  look  up  each  word  in 
an  unabridged  dictionary,  copy  into  his  notebook  any 
new  information  he  may  gain  about  its  definition,  and 
add  several  synonyms.  Lastly,  it  would  be  well  to  add  in 
a  third  column  a  number  of  useful  derivatives.  By  this 
time  the  word  will  have  become  familiar  as  a  reading 
word.  Everything  now  depends  upon  the  will  of  the 
student    to   use    the   word    and   its    derivatives    in    his 


103  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

speech  and  writing.     He  should  make  a  point  of  enjoy- 
ing his  new  possessions. 

Only  a  few  words  each  week  can  be  treated  in  this 
thorough  manner,  and  therefore  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sup- 
plement this  process  by  marking  any  unfamiliar  words 
that  occur  either  in  text-books  or  in  English  classics.  A 
second  careful  reading  of  the  passage  may  explain  some- 
what the  meaning  of  the  marked  words ;  they  will  not  be 
fixed  in  the  memory,  however,  until  the  reader  has  taken 
the  pains  to  look  them  up.^ 

32.  Study  of  Synonyms. — Words  should  be  repeated 
freely  for  emphasis  and  for  clearness,  but  where  the  stu- 
dent repeats  consciously  for  these  purposes  once,  he  will 
repeat  a  dozen  times  inadvertently.  Before  making  the 
final  draft  of  a  theme,  the  writer  Avould  do  well  to 
underscore  in  pencil  every  repeated  word  of  any  impor- 
tance, especially  verbs  and  adjectives.  If  such  words 
are  used  twice  or  oftener  within  a  few  lines  through  care- 
lessness, or  ignorance  of  any  better  word,  the  writer  must 
resort  to  dictionaries  or  books  of  synonyms.  In  every 
school  library  there  should  be  found  one  or  more  vol- 
umes of  synonyms,  books  which  treat  that  large  class  of 
words  that  are  nearly,  though  '  ut  quite,  identical  in  mean- 
ing. But  the  best  book  of  ynonyms  is  that  which  the 
student  makes  for  himself  by  gathering  from  liis  memory 
and  from  the  dictionary  all  allied  terms;  e.  g.,  party, 
company,  gathering,  clan,  assembly,  congregation,  meet- 
ing; reply,  retort,  rejoin,  respond,  answer;  beautiful, 
lovely,  handsome,  pretfy,  exquisite;  money,  wealth, 
riches,  means,  plenty,  etc. 

33.  The  Use  of  Concordances. — "I  rarely  consult  my 
dictionaries,"  an  English  scholar  once  said.  "When  I 
want  to  find  out  how  to  use  a  word,  I  go  to  the  masters 
of  English   who  have  used  it  again  and   airain."     This 


>A  similar   method  is  usually  followed  in  learning  a  foreign  language. 


HOW  TO  INCREASE  A  VOCABULAKY        103 

does  not  mean  tluit  he  read  one  of  Macaulay's  essays  to 
find  out  the  hitter's  use  of  the  word  "benign,"  for  exam- 
ple, but  that  he  turned  to  concordances  (or  special  dic- 
tionaries for  different  authors)  to  examine  the  quotations 
given  there  under  the  word.  Only  occasionally  can  we 
treat  a  word  in  such  an  exhaustive  fashion,  but  when  we 
do  take  the  pains  to  explore  the  past  experiences  of  a 
word  at  the  hands  of  our  great  masters  of  speech,  we  have 
made  a  good  friend  for  life. 

The  advantage  of  such  thorough  and  exhaustive  study 
is  that  it  not  only  shows  us  how  the  great  masters  of 
English  have  used  words,  but  also  gives  us  a  view  of 
the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  their  meanings. 
Take,  for  example,  the  word  "thought."  In  a  version 
of  the  Bible  which  was  printed  about  1611,  but  which 
to  a  large  extent  uses  the  forms  of  earlier  transla- 
tions, we  find  the  following:  "Take  no  thought  for 
your  life,  what  ye  shall  eat  or  what  ye  shall  drink,"  ^ — a 
passage  which  we  can  understand  when  we  find  Brutus 
saying  in  Shakspere's  Julius  Caesar  that  if  Antony  love 
Caesar,  all  that  he  can  do  after  the  death  of  Caesar  is, — 
"take  thought  and  die  for  Caesar."^  Clearly,  in  both 
these  passages,  the  word  means  the  most  intense  anxiety 
and  grief.  In  the  works  of  Milton,  who  wrote  about 
1660,  we  read:  "Adam  took  no  thought,  eating  his  fill."  * 
In  the  later  poets,  we  find  no  trace  of  the  early  meaning. 
Pope  says,  "Expression  is  the  dress  of  thought,"  and 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  Burns,  Shelley, 
Browning,  and  Tennyson. 

"Mob"  is  another  word  with  an  interesting  history. 
Before  the  eighteenth  century,  for  the  idea  now  expressed 
by  "mob"  were  used  the  words,  "rabble,"   as  in  Shaks- 


•  }fatthew,  vi.  25. 
''Julius  Caesar,  II,  i,  185. 
3  Paradise  Lost,  IX.  1004. 


104  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

pere,  or  "multitude/'  as  in  the  Bible.  "Mob"  itself  was 
originally  a  bit  of  slang,  abbreviated  from  mobile  vulgus. 
Swift,  writing  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  says:  "I 
have  done  my  utmost  for  some  years  past  to  stop  the  prog- 
ress of  'mob'  and  'banter,'  but  have  been  plainly  borne 
down  by  numbers."^  Addison  says:  "I  dare  not  answer 
that  'mob,'  'rap,'  'jtos.,'  'incog.,'  and  the  like  will  not  be 
looked  ui")on  in  time  as  part  of  our  tongue."  Notwith- 
standing the  protests  of  the  defenders  of  pure  English, 
we  find  such  a  master  as  Pope  using  the  word  frequently, 
as  in  the  famous  line  in  which  he  calls  the  poets  of  the 
Restoration  period, 

The  mob  of  gentlemen  who  wrote  with  ease-^ 

Tennyson  speaks  of  "])raink'ss  mobs"^;  and  Browning 
says : 

The  mob;  now  that's  just  how  the  error  comesl 
Bethink  you  that  you  deal  with  jilehs. 

The  word  is  now  completely  established. 

Very  often  words  change  from  a  literal  to  a  figurative 
meaning;  like  families,  they  sometimes  lose  caste,  some- 
times gain  higher  repute;  often  their  meaning  is  narrowed 
and  specialized ;  sometimes  they  retain  their  original  sig- 
nification with  remarkable  persistence.  But  whatever 
the  history  of  a  word  may  be,  an  accurate  acquaintance 
with  that  history  gives  the  ability  to  use  the  word  Avith 
exactness  and  force. 

34.  Translation. — Another  great  help  in  acquiring  a 
large  and  vai-ied  vocabulary  is  translation  from  a  foreign 
language.  Of  course,  if  the  student  contents  himself 
with  one  English  word  to  be  used  on, all  occasions  as 
the  equivalent  of  a  given  foreign  word,  he  will  make  little 

•  Tatler,  ccxxx. 
^Satire,  V.  108. 
iOf/f  to  (hf  Duke  of  iVillinglon, 


HOW   TO    IXCREASE    A    VOrAIiULARY  105 

progress  in  either  language.  Tliis  had  hahit  is  encouraged 
by  the  use  of  vocabuhiries  which  contain  only  one  or  two 
meanings  for  words.  In  the  case  of  important  or  fre- 
quently used  words,  an  ambitious  student  will  never  content 
himself  with  the  information  given  by  these  special  vocabu- 
laries. An  everyday  example  of  what  is  meant  is  the  word 
vir.  Most  beginners  in  Latin  think  that  the  English  word 
"man"  will  translate  vir  in  all  cases;  sometimes  they 
remember  that  vir  means  "hero"  as  well.  But  vir  means 
also  "husband,"  and  sometimes  in  the  plural,  "foot-sol- 
diers. ' '  Its  real  meaning  is  found  in  the  English  derivatives 
such  as  "virile"  and  "virility";  i.  e.,  vir  is  the  kind  of 
human  being  who  possesses  the  distinctly  masculine 
qualities.  To  enlarge  his  English  vocabulary,  the  student 
should  master  the  various  important  primary  meanings  of 
any  given  word,  its  figurative  meanings,  and  some  of  its 
English  derivatives,  if  there  are  any.^ 

35.  Special  Vocabularies. — Each  trade  or  art  has  its 
own  vocabulary,  much  of  which,  to  be  sure,  is  not  useful 
for  general  purposes.  Yet  even  very  special  terms,  such 
as  "swivel,"  "warp,"  "double-entry,"  and  "harrow," 
enrich  our  vocabularies  by  definite  ideas  and  are  fre- 
quently used  figuratively.  Improve  every  opportunity  for 
acquiring  special  terms  with  their  exact  meanings.  The 
vocabularies  of  the  arts  and  the  crafts  will  add  greatly  to 
our  store  of  definite  images  and  picturesque,  illustrative 
words.  Something  may  be  said  hero  for  an  intelligent 
interest  in  colloquialisms  and  provincialisms ;  racy  idioms 
of  the  people  are  fast  disappearing  as  our  country  becomes 
unified.  The  habitual  use  of  dialect  forms  is  hardly  to 
be  encouraged,  yet  an  apt  use  of  an  expression  from  the 
soil  adds  to  the  strength  of   our  diction.     How  much 

'The  work  of  ti-anslation  is  not  completed  when  the  words  are  thoroughly 
understood.  Groups  of  words,  or  idioms,  must  be  rendered  by  corre- 
sponding idioms;  eg.  laisser-aller  by  "to  go  as  you  please."  This  part 
Of  translation  will  be  discussed  in  chapter  XIII. 


106  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

should  we  miss  without  the  'New  England  word  "chore," 
or  the  southern  word  "tote"!  When  used  in  writing, 
however,  such  colloquialisms  should  be  inclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks  in  order  to  indicate  that  they  are  not  estab- 
lished in  good  use/ 

36.  Summary  of  Chapter. — To  conclude,  a  wide  vocab- 
ulary means  freedom.  We  must  become  free  of  our 
language  (as  men  were  anciently  of  a  town  or  state),  if 
we  are  to  express  ourselves  effectively  and  completely. 
Words  are  curiously  human  things ;  they  carry  with  them 
romantic  stories.  Each  one,  no  matter  how  unobtrusive 
it  may  seem,  ditfers  from  its  fellow,  and  is  useful  in  its 
own  way.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  summed  up  in 
these  pithy  sentences : 

It  is  important,  therefore,  for  anybody  who  would  cuUivate 
himself  in  English  to  make  strenuous  and  systematic  efforts  to 
enlarge  his  vocabulary.  Our  dictionaries  contain  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  words.  The  average  speaker  employs  about 
tliree  thousand.  Is  this  bec;avise  ordinary  people  have  only 
three  or  four  thousand  things  to  say?  Not  at  all.  It  is  simply 
due  to  dullness.  Listen  to  the  average  schoolboy.  He  has  a 
dozen  or  two  nouns,  half  a  dozen  verbs,  three  or  four  adjectives, 
and  enough  conjunctions  and  prepositions  to  stick  the  conglom- 
erate together.  This  ordinary  speech  deserves  the  description 
which  Hobbes  gave  to  his  State  of  Nature  that  "it  is  solitary, 
poor,  nasty,  brutish,  and  short."  The  fact  is,  we  fall  into  the 
way  of  thinking  tliat  the  wealthy  words  are  for  others  and  that 
they  do  not  belong  to  us.  We  are  like  those  who  have  received 
a  vast  inheritance,  but  who  persist  in  the  inconveniences  of  hard 
beds,  scanty  food,  rude  clothing,  who  never  travel,  and  who 
limit  their  purchases  to  the  bleak  necessities  of  life.  Ask  such 
people  why  they  endure  niggardly  living  while  wealth  in  plenty 
is  lying  in  the  bank,  and  they  can  only  answer  that  they  have 
never  learned  how  to  spend.  But  this  is  worth  learning.  Mil- 
ton used  eight  thousand  words,  Shakespeare  fifteen  thousand. 
We  liave  all  the  subjects  to  talk  about  that  these  earlj'  speakers 
had ;  and  in  addition  we  have  bicycles  and  sciences  and  strikes 


>  See  section  02. 


HOW    TO    INCREASE    A    VOCABULARY  107 

and  political  combinations  and  all  tlie  complicated  living  of  the 
modern  world. 

Why,  then,  do  we  hesitate  to  swell  our  words  to  meet  our 
needs?  It  is  a  nonsense  question.  There  is  no  reason.  We  are 
simply  lazy;  too  lazy  to  make  ourselves  comfortable.  We  let 
our  vocabularies  be  limited,  and  get  along  rawly  without  the 
refinements  of  human  intercourse,  without  refinements  in  our 
own  thoughts ;  for  thouglits  are  almost  as  dependent  on  words 
as  words  on  thoughts.  For  example,  all  exasperations  we  lump 
together  as  "aggravating,"  not  considering  whether  they  may 
not  rather  be  displeasing,  annoying,  offensive,  disgusting,  irri- 
tating, or  even  maddening;  and  without  observing,  too,  that  in 
our  reckless  usage  we  have  burned  up  a  word  wliich  might  be 
convenient  when  we  should  need  to  make  some  shading  of  the 
word  "increase."  Like  the  bad  cook,  we  seize  the  frying-pan 
whenever  we  need  to  fry,  broil,  roast,  or  stew,  and  then  we 
wonder  why  all  our  dishes  taste  alike  while  in  the  next  house 
the  food  is  ai:)petizing.  It  is  all  unnecessary.  Enlarge  the 
vocabulary. 

Let  anyone  who  wants  to  see  himself  grow,  resolve  to  adopt 
two  new  words  each  week.  It  will  not  be  long  before  the  end- 
less and  enchanting  variety  of  the  world  will  begin  to  reflect 
itself  in  his  speech,  and  in  his  mind  as  well.  I  know  that  when 
we  use  a  word  for  the  first  time  we  are  startled,  as  if  a  fire- 
cracker went  off  in  our  neighborhood.  We  look  about  ha.stily  to 
see  if  anyone  has  noticed.  But  finding  that  no  one  has,  we  may 
be  emboldened.  A  word  used  three  times  slips  off  the  tongue 
with  entire  naturalness.  Then  it  is  ours  forever,  and  with  it 
some  phase  of  life  which  had  been  lacking  hitherto.  For  each 
word  presents  its  own  point  of  view,  discloses  a  special  aspect 
of  things,  reports  some  little  importance  not  otherwise  con- 
veyed, and  so  contributes  its  small  emancipation  to  our  tied-up 
minds  and  tongues. — G.  H.  Palmer;  Self -Cultivation  in  English. 

Exercise   VII 

A.  Eewrite  the  following  themes,  using  new  words  for 
the  repeated  terms : 

1.  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

North  America  is  divided  into  three  parts:  the  eastern, 
the  centi'al,  and  the  western  part.  Many  small  rivers  drain  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Appalachian   Mountains  and  the  Atlantic 


108  COMPOSITION    AXD    KHETORIC 

coast.  The  Hudson  River,  which  drains  the  south  part,  flows  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  drains  the  north 
part,  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Between  the 
Appalachian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  lies  the  central  part,  and 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  two  great  tributaries,  the  Missouri 
and  Ohio  Rivers,  drain  it.  Of  the  part  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains the  two  principal  rivers  are  the  Colorado  and  the  Colum- 
bia. The  Colorado  River  drains  the  southern  part  and  flows  into 
the  Gulf  of  California;  the  Columbia  River  drains  the  northern 
part  and  flows  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

2.  FEUDALISM 

In  England  at  the  time  of  "William  the  Conqueror  it  was 
customary  for  the  king  to  give  any  land  belonging  to  him  to 
his  nobles  or  lords  for  any  service  they  had  done.  At  first  this 
land  was  given  without  any  conditions,  but  afterward  the  owner 
of  the  land  must  collect  men  for  the  king  in  time  of  war.  The 
thanes,  who  were  the  nobles,  and  the  bishops,  in  their  turn, 
would  give  land  to  their  inferiors,  and  these  inferiors  would  till 
the  ground  for  the  barons.  When  any  land  was  given,  the  per- 
son who  gave  the  land  and  the  person  to  whom  the  land  was  to 
be  given,  would  take  an  oath  and  swear,  the  first  to  protect  the 
second,  and  the  second  to  serve  the  first.  The  huts  of  the  serfs 
were  generally  built  about  the  fortified  house  of  the  baron ;  in 
this  vcay  he  could  protect  them.  The  people  living  on  the  land 
of  the  baron  were  judged  by  him ;  and  if  the  baron  had  to  fight 
a  battle  his  peoi^le  must  give  their  services  and  fight  for  him. 
The  king  always  called  together  a  council  at  Christmas,  Easter, 
and  Whitsuntide,  and  this  all  the  thanes  had  to  attend.  The 
king  also  had  the  right  of  collecting  annual  dues  wlien  he  went 
to  war,  at  the  time  when  his  eldest  son  was  knighted,  and  at 
the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter.  The  feudal  system  was 
very  good  both  for  the  rich  and  poor  as  they  were  in  constant 
warfare,  because  the  poor  people  gave  their  services,  and  the 
king  gave  his  protection. 

B.  Supply  adjectives,  nouns,  and  verbs  in  the  spaces 
left  blank  •}  • 

1.  On  a  nearer  approach  Rip  was  still  more  surprised  at  the 
. of  the  stranger's  appearance.  He  was  a  short,  square- 
built  old  fellow  with  thick hair  and  a •  beard.     His 


"Similar  exercises  may  be  prepared  by  the  teacher  from  passages  read  in 
the  class  in  literature. 


HOW  TO  INCREASE  A  YOCABULAEY        109 

dress  was  of  the Dutch  fashion :    a    cloth  jerkin' 

round  the  waist — several  pairs  of  breeches,  the  outer  one  of 

volume, with  rows  of  buttons  down  the  sides  and 

bunches  at  the  knees.     He on  his  shoulder  a  stout  keg, 

tliat  seemed   full  of  liquor,  and  made  signs  for  Rip  to 

and him  with  the  load.     Though  rather  shy  and of 

this    new   acquaintance,   Rip with  his  usual ;  and 

mutually  relieving  ofte  another,  they up  a  narrow  gully, 

apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a  mountain . — Irving:  Rip  Van 

Winkle. 

C.  In  the  following  selections,  explain  carefully  all  the 
italicized  words  and  suggest  one  or  two  synonyms  for  each 
one: 

1.  To  be  sure,  there  was  an  exception  in  the  curate,  who  would 
receive  unhlenching  the  information,  that  the  meadoic  beyond 
the  orchard  was  a  prairie  studded  with  herds  of  buffalo,  which 
it  was  our  delight,  moccasined  and  tomahawked,  to  ride  down 
with  those  whooj^s  that  announce  the  scenting  of  blood.  He 
neither  laughed  nor  sneered,  as  the  [other  "grown-ups"']  would 
have  done;  but  possessed  of  a  serious  idiosyncrasy  he  would 
contribute  such  lots  of  valuable  suggestion  as  to  the  pursuit  of 
this  particular  sort  of  big  game  that,  as  it  seemed  to  us,  his 
mature  age  and  eminent  position  could  scarce  have  been 
attained  without  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  creature  in  its 
native  ZaiV. — Kenneth  Grahame:  The  Golden  Age. 

2.  With  all  his  faults — and  they  were  neither  few  nor  small — 
only  one  cemetery  was  worthy  to  contain  his  remains.  In  that 
temple  of  silence  and  reconciliation  where  the  enmities  of 
twenty  generations  lie  buried,  in  the  Great  Abbey  which  has  for 
ages  afforded  a  quiet  resting-place  to  those  whose  minds  and 
bodies  have  been  shattered  by  the  contentions  of  the  Great  Hall, 
the  dust  of  the  illustrious  accused  should  have  been  mingled 
with  the  dust  of  the  illustrious  accusers. — Macaulay:  Warren 
Hastings. 

3.  You  might  read  all  the  books  in  the  British  Museum  (if  you 
could  live  long  enough)  and  remain  an  utterly  ''illiterate,''  uned- 
ucated person ;  but  if  you  read  ten  pages  of  a  good  book,  letter 
by  letter, — that  is  to  say,  with  real  accuracy, — you  are  for  ever- 
more in  some  measure  an  educated  person.  The  entire  differ- 
ence between  education  and  non-education  (  as  regards  the 
merely  intellectual  part  of  it),  consists  in  this  accuracy.     A  well- 


110  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

educated  gentleman  may  not  know  manj-  languages, — may  not 
be  able  to  speak  any  but  his  own, — may  have  read  very  few 
books.  But  whatever  language  he  knows,  he  knows  precisely; 
whatever  word  he  pronounces,  he  pronounces  rightly;  above 
all  he  is  learned  in  the  peerage  of  words ;  he  knows  the  words  of 
true  descent  and  ancient  blood,  at  a  glance,  from  words  of  mod- 
ern canaille;  remembers  all  their  ancestry — their  intermarriages, 
distantest  relationshijos,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  were  ad- 
mitted, and  offices  they  held,  among  the  national  »oWe.s'Sf  of  words 
at  any  time,  and  in  any  countiy." — Ruskin:  Sesame  and  Lilies. 
4.  Major-General  Sir  Horatio  Herbert  Kitchener  is  forty-eight 
years  old  by  the  book;  but  that  is  irrelevant.  He  stands  several 
inches  over  six  feet,  straight  as  a  lance,  and  looks  out  impe- 
riously above  most  men's  heads ;  his  motions  are  deliberate  and 
strong ;  slender  but  firmly  knit,  he  seems  built  for  tireless,  steel- 
wire  endurance  rather  than  for  power  or  agility:  that  also  is 
irrelevant.  Steady  prtss/o/tZt's.s'  e^-es,  shaded  by  decisive  brows, 
brick-red  rather  full  cheeks,  a  long  moustache  beneath  which 
you  divine  an  immovable  mouth;  liis  face  is  harsh,  and  neither 
appeals  for  affection  nor  stirs  dislike.  All  this  is  irrelevant,  too, 
neither  age,  nor  figure,  nor  face,  nor  any  accident  of  person,  has 
any  bearing  on  the  essential  Sirdar.  You  could  imagine  the 
character  just  the  same  if  all  the  externals  were  different. 
He  has  no  age  but  the  prime  of  life,  no  body  but  one  to  carrj^  liis 
mind,  no  face  but  one  to  keep  his  brain  behind. — G.W.  Stevens: 
With  Kitchener  to  Khartum. 

D.  What  words  in  the  following  passage  from  Lowell 
are  you  sure  that  you  never  use? 

Over  it  rose  the  noisy  belfry  of  the  College,  the  square,  brown 
tower  of  the  church,  and  the  slim,  yellow  spire  of  the  parish 
meeting-house,  by  no  means  ungraceful,  and  then  an  invariable 
cliaracteristio  of  New  England  religious  architecture.  On  your 
right,  the  Charles  slipped  smoothly  through  green  and  purple 
salt  meadows  darkened  here  and  there,  with  the  blossoming- 
black  grass  as  with  a  strandetl  cloud-shadow.  Over  these 
marshes,  level  as  water,  but  without  its  glare,  and  with  softer 
and  more  soothing  gradations  of  perspective,  the  eye  was  car- 
ried to  a  horizon  of  softly-rounded  hills.  To  your  left  hand, 
upon  the  Old  Road,  you  saw  some  half-dozen  dignified  old  houses 
of  the  colonial  time,  all  comfortably  fronting  southward.  If  it 
w^ere  earlj'  June,  the  rows  of  horse-cliestnuts  along  the  fronts 


HOW   TO   INCREASE    A   VOCABULARY  111 

of  these  houses  showed  through  every  crevice  of  their  dark 
heap  of  foliage,  and  on  the  end  of  every  drooping  limb,  a  cone  of 
pearly  flowers,  while  the  hill  behind  was  white  or  rosy  with  the 
crowding  blooms  of  various  fruit  trees.  There  is  no  sound, 
unless  a  liorseman  clatters  over  the  loose  planks  of  the  bridge, 
while  his  antipodal  shadow  glides  silently  over  the  mirrored 
bridge  below. — Lowell:  Cambridge  Thirty  Years  Ago. 

E.  What  are  the  literal  meanings  of  the  italicized  words 
in  this  passage? 

1.  This  was  all  excellent,  no  doubt;  so  were  the  diaries  I  some- 
times tried  to  keep,  but  always  and  very  speedily  discarded, 
finding  them  a  school  of  posturing  and  melancholy  self-decep- 
tion. .  .  .  Regarded  as  training,  it  had  one  grave  defect ;  for 
it  set  me  no  standard  ot  achievement.  So  that  there  was  per- 
haps more  profit,  as  there  was  certainly  more  effort,  in  my  secret 
labors  at  home.  WJienever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage  that  par- 
ticularly pleased  me,  in  which  a  thing  was  said  or  an  effect 
rendered  with  jwopriety,  in  which  there  was  either  some  con- 
spicuotis  force  or  some  happy  distinction  in  the  style,  I  must  sit 
down  at  once  and  set  myself  to  a_/je  tliat  quality.— Stevenson: 
A  College  Magazine. 

F.  Give  several  commonly  used  derivatives  from  each 
one  of  the  following  stems.     Define  each  derivative: 

aud,  (hear)  audible,  etc.  leg,  lig,  lect,(gather,  choo.se. 
cap,  cip,    capt,    (take)  cap-  read) 

ture,  etc.  mit,  miss,  (send) 

ced,  cess,  (move,  yield)  ces-  mot,  (move) 

sion,  etc.  nat,  (born) 

cred,  (believe)  nav,  (ship) 

dat,  dit,  (give)  not,  (known) 

diet,  (speak)  pat,  pass,  (suffer) 

dom,  (home)  port,  (carry) 

dorm,  (sleep)  reg,  rect,  (rule) 

due,  duct,  (lead)  sci,  (know) 

fac,    fie,  fact,  feet,    (make,  sec,  sect,  (cut) 

do)  sol,  (alone) 

fer,  (bear)  spic,  spect,  speci,  (see) 

grad,     gred,     gress,     (step)  teg,  tect,  (cover) 

ject,  (cast)  ven,  vent,  (come) 

vid,  vis,  (see) 


112 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


G.  Supply  one  oi 

I*  more  synonyms  for  each  w 

list.    Explain  how 

each 

synonym  differs  in  us 

others : 

to  go  away 

porch 

to  give 

associate 

to  have 

building 

to  transmit 

word 

to  traverse 

name 

to  elevate 

to  reject 

transversely 

to  spend 

properly 

to  supply 

concisely 

to  advise 

big 

size 

sharp 

depression 

prickly 

statement 

crooked 

unwillingness 

religious 

i  mportance 

delicate 

management 

internal 

integritj' 

monotonous 

necessity 

inadequate 
rich 

writer 

serious 

letter 

charitable 

//.  Here  are  twenty  familiar  Latin  words;  give  for  each 
one  (1)  several  literal  meanings;  (2)  at  least  one  figurative 
meaning;  (3)  some  common  English  derivatives: 


accedo,  accedere,  accessi,  ac- 
cessum 

aer 

anima 

asper 

barbarus 

caput 

capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum 

cerno,  cernere,  crevi,  cretum 

colo,  colere,  colui,  cultum 

condo,  condere,  condidi,  Con- 
di tum 


confero,  conferre,  contuli,  col- 

latum 
convivium 
copia 
cura 
dexter 
hospes 
res 

rumpo,  rumpere,  rupi,  ruptum 
tero,  terre,  trivi,  tritum 
umbra 


HOW  TO  IXCREASE  A  YOCABULAKY 


113 


7.  Discuss  these  groups  of  synonyms,  constructing  short 
sentences  to  illustrate  the  approprititc  use  of  each  word : 

To  abandon,  desert,  forsake,  relinquish. 
To  abate,  lessen,  diminish,  decrease. 
To  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  live,  reside,  inhabit. 
Acquaintance,  familiarity,  intimacy. 
To  admit,  allow,  permit,  suffer,  tolerate. 
Apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvious,  evident,  manifest. 
Band,  conqiany,  crew,  gang. 

Behavior,  conduct,  carriage,  deportment,  demeanor. 
Blemish,  defect,  fault. 

Calamity,  disaster,  misfortune,  mischance,  mishap. 
Compensation,  amend,    satisfaction,   recompense,    remunera- 
tion, requital,  reward. 
Conversation,  dialogue,  conference,  colloquj'. 
Deed,  exploit,  achievement,  feat. 
Distress,  anxiety,  anguish,  agony. 
Situation,  condition,  state,  predicament,  plight,  case. 

J.   Look  up  in  a  dictionary  some  of  the  words  in  the 
following  list,  and  then  use  them  in  appropriate  sentences : 


anticipate 

alternative 

aggravate 

tortuous 

felicitous 

judicious 

cursory 

sonorous 

habitual 

denote 

diversified 

analogous 

alienate 

resources 

obliterate 

delineation . 

arbitrary 

grope 

incumbent 

formidable 

access 

abdicate 

arduous 

expediency 

essential 

facilitate 

subtle 

discrimination 

adecpiate 

truism 

specious 

requisite 

inauspicious 

copious 

appi'oximate 

scholar 

specific 

vapid 

jargon 

facility 

conversant 

deride 

methodical 

disparity 

distinction 

pertain 

ambiguous 

K.  Treat  the  follow 

ing  words  as  suggested  in  section  33 

success 

prevent 

naughty 

banter 

event 

"  trim 

corn 

denounce 

fond 

CHAPTER   YII 

A  REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION 

37.  Uses  of  Punctuation. — If  every  sentence  consisted  of 
but  one  simple  statement,  not  more  than  a  dozen  words  in 
length,  we  should  need  only  one  mark  of  punctuation, 
the  period,  to  indicate  its  close.  But  as  soon  as  we 
write  compound  or  complex  sentences,  or  even  long 
simple  sentences,  we  realize  the  necessity  for  some  me- 
chanical device  that  will  show  the  divisions  and  the  rela- 
tionship of  the  different  parts.  Such  a  want  is  met  by 
the  marks  of  punctuation. 

In  the  first  place,  punctuation,  like  spelling,  capitaliza- 
tion, and  grammar,  is  a  matter  of  custom  or  good  use. 
The  metliod  of  punctuating  that  by  common  consent 
has  gradually  come  to  be  used  among  writers  should  bo 
observed,  if  for  no  better  reason,  to  avoid  eccentricity. 
The  single  quotation  mark  might  be  used,  rather  than  the 
double,  to  iiulicate  a  quotation,  if  only  it  wore  tlie  general 
custom  to  do  so.  Again,  the  modern  writer  might  place 
the  sign  of  the  paragraph  (•^)  at  the  begiiniing  of  every 
new  paragraph,  as  was  once  the  custom.  lUit  he  would 
gain  nothing  by  such  dcfviations  from  customary  usage.  In 
punctuation,  as  in  many  matters,  the  best  rule  is  to  follow 
a  general  custom  wlicn  nothing  is  gained  l)y  breaking  it. 

The  most  important  reason,^  however,  for  using  a  con- 
sistent scheme  of  punctuation  is  that  it  enables  the  Avriter 

1  Another  use  of  punctuation  may  be  mentioned :  the  writer  may  employ 
the  various  marks  (especially  the  comma  and  the  dash)  to  bring  out  empha- 
sis in  the  sentence.  Just  as  the  musician  uses  symbols  to  iiulicate  time,  the 
skillful  writer  may  mark  slight  pauses  or  changes  in  thought  by  puncttia- 
tion.  In  this  way  punctuation  takes  the  place  of  the  inflections  of  the  voice 
In  spoken  language. 

114 


A    REVIEW    OP   PUNCTUATION  115 

to  make  his  meaning  clear.  The  omission  or  misuse  of  a 
punctuation  mark  may  render  a  sentence  obscure  or 
ambiguous.  For  example,  what  sense  does  this  group  of 
unpunctuated  words  give? 

Wherever  the  envoys  went  they  were  received  with  delight 
as  they  had  the  means  to  purchase  drink  for  the  natives  they 
easily  obtained  the  desired  information. 

This  sentence  is  capable  of  two  slightly  different  inter- 
pretations, depending  on  the  punctuation  used  after 
"delight."  In  the  following  sentence,  the  absence  of 
a  comma  after  "nothing"  would  materially  alter  the 
sense : 

The  committee  has  either  done  something  of  which  it  is 
ashamed,  or  it  has  done  nothing,  of  which  it  is  ashamed. 

38.  How  to  Learn  Punctuation. — Since,  as  has  been 
noted,  punctuation  is  a  growth,  it  changes  more  or  less 
rapidly.  We  do  not  punctuate  to-day  as  Addison  did; 
nor  do  we  punctuate  precisely  as  was  the  custom  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  We  use  fewer  marks,  especially  commas, 
for  the  tendency  is  to  simplify  punctuation  as  much  as 
possible.  The  best  way  to  learn  present  usage  in  this 
matter  is  to  examine  carefully  modern  books  published  by 
firms  of  a  good  reputation  for  accuracy.  If  the  student 
will  copy  in  his  notebook  good  examples  of  the  use  of 
the  different  marks,  he  will  quickly  learn  the  general  laws. 
Some  students,  however,  will  find  it  easier  to  learn  rules, 
and  for  them  the  following  summary  of  the  more  com- 
mon usages  has  been  prepared  •} 

39.  The  Comma. — The  comma  is  used: 

1.  To  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  a  connective  is  given  and  the  break  in  the  thought 
is  slight. 

The  war  was  brief,  but  it  was  decisive. 


>  BigeloWs  Handbook  of  Punctuation  is  a  conveuieut  reference  book,  con- 
taining ample  illustration  of  all  possible  uses. 


116  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETOEIC 

2.  To  rest  the  eye  between  the  parts  of  a  long  com- 
pound predicate. 

The  hound  caught  the  scent  after  a  long  delay,  and  led  us 
over  the  hill  to  the  next  piece  of  woods. 

When  the  compound  predicate  is  short,  no  punctuation 
is  recjuired. 

He  drew  up  a  bucket  of  water  and  carried  it  into  the  house. 

3.  To  separate  a  dependent  clause  from  a  main  clause 
in  a  complex  sentence. 

Whenever  he  >yrote  to  me  about  his  journey,  I  replied  at  great 
length. 

When  the  dependent  clause  follows  the  main  clause, 
the  comma  is  frequently  omitted. 

The  campaign  could  be  begun  only  when  the  rains  had  ceased. 

4.  To  separate  a  participial  phrase  from  the  rest  of  tlio 

sentence. 

The  farmsteads  seemed  almost  empty,  the  villagers  being  still 
at  work  on  the  immense  harvest-fields. 

5.  To  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  a  relative 
clause  that  does  not  restrict  the  meaning  of  its  ante- 
cedent. 

Our  Constitution,  which  has  endured  for  over  a  century,  was 
formed  in  a  relatively  brief  time. 

If  the  clause  actually  restricts  the  meaning  of  the 
antecedent,  the  comma  is  usually  omitted. 

They  were  the  fi'amers  of  a  constitution  which  endured  for 
over  a  century. 

In  this  second  case  the  relative  clause  has  the  force  of 
a  modifying  adjective.  • 

G.  To  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  all  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  used  in  apposition. 

There  was  the  old  hound  Maida,  a  noble  animal  and  a  great 
favorite  of  Scott's. 


A   EEVIEW   OF   PUNCTUATION  117 

7.  To  separate  from  the  predicate  a  phrase  or  clause 
subject  which  miglit  be  confused  with  the  predicate. 

To  hold  fast  to  the  truth  as  he  sees  it,  is  a  man's  first  duty. 

8.  To  separate,  in  general,  words  or  groups  of  words 
that  are  grammatically  independent  or  parenthetical. 

There  is,  moreover,  another  reason  that  should  influence  you. 
No  one  believes  more  than  I  do  in  the  usefulness,  I  might  well 
say  the  necessity,  of  practical  studies. 

In  the  last  example  dashes,  or  dashes  with  commas,  or 
brackets  might  be  used  to  render  the  parenthesis  more 
emphatic. 

9.  To  separate  words  in  direct  address  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence. 

Hail,  Caesar! 

I  cannot  answer  you,  sir. 

10.  To  separate  similar  words  or  phrases  in  the  same 
construction  used  in  a  series  and  not  joined  by  conjunc- 
tions. 

It  was  a  large,  round,  wliite  ball. 

The  cordial  smile,  the  Marm  hand-clasp,  the  cheery  word, — 
these  he  gave  to  all. 

If  conjunctions  are  used  between  the  members  of  a 
series,  commas  are  not  necessary. 

The  house  was  large  and  roomy  and  comfortable. 

When,  however,  a  conjunction  is  used  between  the  last 
two  members  only,  commas  should  separate  all  the  mem- 
bers, including  the  last  two. 

Studies  serve  for  delight,  for  ornament,  and  for  ability. 

11.  To  indicate  the  omission  of  necessary  words. 
We  respect  deeds;  they,  words. 

12.  Before  a  direct  quotation  which  is  not  longer  than 
one  sentence. 

He  shouted,  "Keep  up  your  courage,  men." 


118  COMPOSITIOI^    AXD    RHETORIC 

13.  In  dates,  addresses,  and  figures. 

Wednesday,  July  24,  1903. 
Professor  James  Miller, 

Columbia  Universit)', 

New  York. 

On  the  envelope,  hoM'ever,  these  commas  are  usually 
omitted,  the  only  mark  of  punctuation  used  beina;  periods 
after  abbreviations. 

In  general,  the  comma  is  used  to  sejxirate  those  parts 
of  a  sentence  that  are  grammatically  nonessential  from 
the  chief  elements  —the  subject  and  the  predicate — or  to 
indicate  pauses  between  words  and  phrases  used  in  a 
series,  or  to  indicate  omissions. 

40.  The  Semicolon.— The  semicolon  has  three  important 
uses: 

1.  To  separate  the  clauses  of  a  comjiound  sentence 
when  no  conjunction  is  used. 

There  was  no  bread  on  board ;  meat  there  was  in  plenty ;  a 
few  cases  of  canned  vegetables  had  been  added,  also. 

The  semicolon  is  also  used  with  the  conjunction,  if 
the  break  between  the  clauses  warrants  it.  Otherwise  the 
comma  is  used.     (See  section  39,  1.) 

His  answer  was  brief;  but  his  manner,  courteous. 

The  ship  wallowed  in  the  trough  of  the  sea ;  but  it  kept  afloat. 

2.  To  separate  the  members  of  a  series  of  clauses  or 
phrases  wherever  commas  would  not  make  the  meaning 
clear. 

He  was  courteous,  not  cringing  to  superiors;  affable,  not 
familiar,  to  eijuals;  and  kind,  but  not  condescending,  to 
inferiors. 

The  ground  strewed  with  the  dead  and  dying;  the  impetuous 
charge;  the  steady  and  successful  repulse;  the  loud  call  to 
repeated  assault — all  these  you  have  witnessed. 

3.  To  precede  "as,"  "viz.,"  "e.  g.,"  "i.  e.,"  etc. 
The  best  example  may  be  found  near  at  hand;  as, — 
Young  writers  neglect  to  use  the  semicolon,  especially 


A   REVIEW   OF   PUNCTUATION  119 

in  the  first  case  cited  above,  preferring  to  write  a  number 
of  simple  sentences. 

A  frequent  misuse  of  the  semicolon  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  sentence: 

His  ability  was  unusual  in  many  fields ;  wherever,  in  fact,  he 
cared  to  apply  himself. 

The  dependent  clause  beginning  Avith  "wherever" 
should  not  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  from  the  main 
clause. 

41.  The  Colon. — In  modern  prose  there  is  but  one 
important  oflice  for  the  colon:  to  indicate  anticipation  or 
summary,  as  seen  in  this  sentence  or  in  the  familiar 
punctuation  of  the  opening  phrase  in  a  letter,  "Dear  Mr. 
Smith:"  For  this  purpose  the  colon  may  precede  a  long 
quotation,  or  a  list  of  items,  or  merely  the  conclusion  to 
a  statement. 

Some  things  we  can,  and  others  we  cannot  do:  we  can  walk, 
but  we  cannot  fly. 

All  books  are  divisible  into  two  clas-ses:  the  books  of  the 
hour  and  the  books  of  all  time. 

Among  the  contents  of  the  room  we  noted  the  following 
items:  one  cathedral  clock;  a  colonial  side-board;  three  old 
chairs;  and  six  oil  portraits 

After  the  usual  preamble  there  followed  a  statement  in  the 
petitioner's  own  words:  "I  have,"  etc. 

Unlike  the  comma  and  the  semicolon,  the  colon  does 
not  merely  separate  elements  of  the  sentence:  it  points 
out  the  relation  between  elements.  The  proper  use  of 
the  colon  adds  greatly  to  a  writer's  power  over  his  sen- 
tence. 

42.  The  Period. — Every  declarative  sentence  which  is 
a  complete  grammatical  unit  should  end  with  a  period. 
That  this  simple  rule  is  frequently  violated  is  shov/n  in 
section  27.  A  period  should  also  be  used  after  every 
abbreviation;  as,  "Dr.,"  "Mr.,"  "B.  D.,"  "viz." 

43.  Marks  of   Interrogation   and   Exclamation. — These 


1-20  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

symbols  explain  themselves.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  both  the  exclamation  point  and  the  interroga- 
tion point  may  be  inserted  within  the  sentence;    e.  g., 

"A  dog  fight !"  shovited  Bob,  and  was  off.  And  so  was  I,  both  of 
us  all  but  praying  tliat  it  might  not  be  over  before  we  arrived! 
And  is  not  this  boy  nature?  and  human  nature,  too?  And  don't 
we  all  wish  that  a  fire  wiJl  not  be  put  outbefore  we  see  it? 

The  question  mark  is  not  used  in  indirect  questions. 
He  asked  whether  I  liad  seen  his  friend. 

When  an  interjection  begins  a  sentence,  the  exclama- 
tion point  is  often  reserved  for  the  end. 

Oh,  it  hurts ! 
O  Caesar ! ' 

The  use  of  these  marks,  when  inserted  in  the  sentence 
within  parentheses  for  the  sake  of  irony,  is  characteristic 
of  vulgar  style;  e.  g. ,  "The  great  (?)  man,"  or,  "How 
bi-illiant(I)  this  remark  was." 

44.  The  Dash. — The  dash  is  used  more  frequently  now 
than  formerly.  There  are  four  instances  where  the  dash 
uiay  be  used  with  effect: 

1 .  To  prolong  the  effect  of  a  comma,  a  colon,  or  a 
period  (as  in  the  heading  of  this  section). 

Dear  Sir, — 
Dear  ]Mary : — 

2.  To  point  out  an  element  in  the  sentence  on  which 
the  writer  wishes  to  place  special  stress.  Here  it  is  fre- 
quently used  with  the  comma. 

Yet  we  in  Oxford,  brought  up  amidst  the  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness of  tliat  beavitiful  place,  have  not  failed  to  seize  one  truth, 
—the  truth  that  beauty  and  sweetness  are  essential  characters 
of  a  complete  lunnan  perfection. 

'■].  To  set  off  jtarent helical  matter  with  or  without 
commas. 


» 'O"  shouUl  bp  iis;e(l  only  with  an  acconipauying  noun;  "oh"  is  the  inde- 
pemltMit  inti'i-jfctiiMi. 


A    REVIEW    OF    PUXCTUATION  121 

He  was  himself  a  Tory,  not  from  rational  conviction— for 
his  serious  opinion  was  that  one  form  of  government  was  just 
as  good  or  as  bad  as  another — but  from  mere  passion. 

4.  To  indicate  an  incomplete  sentence,  or  an  abrupt 

change  in  construction  or  thought. 

I  might  tell  you,  but — . 

Go  into  the  library — I  mean  go  if  you  please. 

He  was  polished,  luxurious,  and  happy— at  the  cost  of  others. 

The  dash  should  not  be  used  carelessly  in  place  of  the 

other  marks  of  punctuation.     The  abuse  of  the  dash  is 

characteristic  of  careless  Avriters. 

45.  The  Apostrophe. — The  apostrophe  is  used  to  form 
the  possessive  case,  to  indicate  omitted  letters,  and,  some- 
times, to  form  plurals. 

Smiths';  isn't;  p's  and  q's. 

46.  Parentheses  (  )  and  Brackets  [  ].  —  Parentheses 
(sometimes  called  "curves")  arc  used  to  inclose  explanatory 
matter  which  might  be  omitted  without  destroying  the 
grammatical  completeness  of  the  sentence.  Frequently 
commas,  or  commas  with  dashes,  are  used  for  this  purpose 
instead  of  parentheses.  Brackets  are  used  only  to  inclose 
corrections,  explanations,  or  words  inserted  in  a  direct 
quotation  but  not  a  part  of  the  original. 

On  the  morning  of  the  next  day  (September  22)  the  army 
entered  the  city. 

Whatever  the  others  thought  (and  they  were  all  much  puz- 
zled) I  determined  not  to  receive  the  dangerous  parcel. 

He  said:  ''What  shall  I  do?  I  cannot  cross  the  river  and 
reach  that  place  [Brown's  Landing]  in  time  to  meet  the  train."' 

47.  Capitals. — Capital  letters  should  be  used: 

,  1.  For  the  first  letter  of  the  first  word  of  a  sentence,  of 
a  line  of  poetry,  and  of  a  direct  quotation. 

2.  For  the  first  letter  of  proper  names  and  proper 
adjectives.  Among  others  these  are:  names  of  days, 
months  (but  not  seasons) ,  streets,  political  parties,  n'xtions, 
and  parts  of  the  country. 


122  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Methodist;  Fifth  Avenue;  Democi'at;  autumn;  Good  Friday; 
Bible;  Scotch;  the  West. 

3.  Personal  titles,  and  the  names  and  titles  of  the 
Deity,  including  all  jironouns  referring  to  Ilim.^ 

48.  Italics. — In  manuscript,  words  to  be  italicized  are 
underlined  once;  to  be  printed  in  small  capitals,  twice; 
in  heavy  capitals,  three  times.  Foreign  Avords  that  have 
not  been  received  into  the  language  should  invarial^ly 
be  italicized  when  used  in  an  English  sentence.  Titles 
may  be  placed  between  quotation  marks  or  italicized,  as 
the  writer  prefers.  The  careful  writer  is  sparing  in  his 
use  of  italics  to  show  emphasis;  not  every  word  that 
receives  stress  from  the  voice  should  be  italicized. 

49.  Quotation  Marks. — Certain  cautions  should  be 
observed  in  quoting.  The  double  marks  (")  should  be 
used  for  simple  quotation;  the  single  mark  ('),  for  a 
quotation  within  a  quotation.  Whenever  the  quotation 
is  broken  by  descriptive  statements  of  the  author  (e.  g., 
"he  said,"  "they  moved  away,"  "rising  from  the  table"), 
the  change  should  be  noted  by  closing  the  quotation  and 
opening  it  again  after  the  interpolated  words.  Careless 
writers  frequently  fail  to  show  where  quoted  passages  end. 
In  quoting  long  passages  covering  more  than  one  para- 
graph, the  marks  of  quotation  should  be  used  at  the 
opening  of  every  paragraph,  but  at  the  end  of  the  last 
paragraph  only. 

Exercise  VIII 

.1.  Give  five  common  uses  for  the  comma;  three  for 
the  semicolon;    Iavo  for  the  period. 

B.  Punctuate  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Were  these  to  be  worthily  recounted  they  would  form  a 
n  irrative  of  no  small  interest  and  instruction  and  possessing 


1  It  is  not  intended  to  explain  all  the  uses  of  capitals.    Special  uses  may 
bo  explained  in  class  as  they  occur  in  the  theme-work. 


A    REVIEW    OF    PUNCTUATION  133 

moreover  a  certain  remarkable  unity  which  might  ahuost  seem 
the  result  of  artistic  arrangement — Hawthorne. 

2.  The  human  species  according  to  the  best  theory  I  can 
form  of  it  is  comijosed  of  two  distinct  races  the  men  who  bor- 
row and  the  men  who  lend. 

3.  I  have  always  thought  of  Christmas  time  when  it  has  come 
round  apart  from  the  veneration  due  to  its  saci'ed  name  and 
origin  if  anything  belonging  to  it  can  be  apart  from  that  as  a 
good  time  a  kind  forgiving  charitable  pleasant  time  the  only  time 
I  know  of  in  the  long  calendar  of  the  year  when  men  and 
women  seem  by  one  consent  to  open  their  sliut-up  liearts  freely 
and  to  think  of  peoiile  below  them  as  if  they  really  were  fellow- 
passengers  to  the  grave  and  not  another  race  of  creatures  bound 
on  other  journeys — Dickens:  ^4.  Christmas  Carol. 

4i.  It  has  a  flooring  of  laths  with  ridges  of  mortar  squeezed  up 
between  them  which  if  you  tread  on  you  .will  go  to  the  Lord 
have  mercy  on  your  soul  where  ivill  you  go  to  the  same  being 
crossed  by  narrow  ridges  of  boards  on  whicli  you  may  put  your 
feet  but  with  fear  and  trembling — Holmes. 

5.  As  for  wintering  where  they  were  that  dreadful  experi- 
ment had  been  already  tried  too  often — Southey. 

6.  Rotherwood  was  not  however  without  defences  no  habita- 
tion in  that  disturbed  period  could  have  been  so  without  the 
risk  of  being  plundered  and  burnt  before  the  next  morning — 
Scott :  Ii-anhoe. 

7.  Matthew  Maule  on  the  other  hand  though  an  obscure  man 
was  stubborn  in  what  he  considered  the  defense  of  his  right  and 
for  several  years  he  succeeded  in  protecting  the  acre  or  two  of 
earth  which  with  his  own  toil  he  had  hewn  out  of  the  primeval 
forest  to  be  his  garden  ground  and  homestead — Hawthorne. 

8.  What  your  politicians  think  the  marks  of  a  bold  hardy 
genius  are  only  proofs  of  a  deplorable  want  of  ability — Burke. 

9.  But  of  all  the  numerous  congratulations  which  he  received 
none  could  have  affected  him  with  deeper  delight  than  that 
which  came  from  his  venerable  father — Southey. 

10.  My  friend  Sir  Roger  has  often  told  me  with  a  great  deal  of 
mirth  that  at  his  first  coming  to  his  estate  he  found  three  parts 
of  his  house  altogether  useless  that  the  best  room  in  it  had  the 
reputation  of  being  haunted  and  by  that  means  was  locked  up 
that  noises  had  been  heard  in  his  long  gallery  so  that  he  could 
not  get  a  servant  to  enter  after  eight  o'clock  at  night  that  the 
door  of  one  of  his  cliambers  was  nailed  up  because  there  went  a 


124  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

story  in  the  family  that  a  butler  had  formerly  hanged  himself 
in  it  and  that  his  mother  who  lived  to  a  great  age  had  shut  up 
half  the  rooms  in  tlie  house  in  which  either  her  husband  a 
sou  or  a  daughter  had  died — Addison. 

11.  What  seems  a  kind  of  temporal  death  to  people  choked 
between  walls  and  curtains  is  only  a  light  and  living  slumber  to 
the  man  who  sleeps  afield— Stevexson. 

12.  Upon  his  first  rising  the  court  was  hushed  and  a  general 
whisper  ran  among  the  country  people  that  Sir  Roger  was  up — 
Addison. 

13.  Rise  very  early  in  the  morning  before  the  stars  have  gone 
out  and  drive  through  the  sleeping  city  till  the  pavement  gives 
place  to  cactus  and  sand  and  educational  and  enlightened  insti- 
tutions to  mile  upon  mile  of  semi-decayed  Hindu  temples  run- 
ning down  to  the  shore  of  the  great  Lake  wherein  are  more 
ruined  temjjles  palaces  and  fragments  of  causeways — Kipling. 

14.  To  impoverish  the  colonies  in  general  and  in  particular  to 
arrest  the  noble  course  of  their  marine  enterprises  would  be  a 
more  easy  task — Burke. 

15.  We  were  in  some  little  time  fixed  in  our  seats  and  sat  with 
that  dislike  which  people  not  too  good  natured  usually  conceive 
of  each  other  at  first  sight — Addison. 

16.  Clergymen  judges  statesmen  the  wisest  calmest  holiest 
persons  of  their  day  stood  in  the  inner  circle  round  about 
the  gallows  loudest  to  applaud  the  work  of  blood  latest  to  confess 
themselves  miserably  deceived — Hawthorne. 

17.  If  we  adopt  this  mode  if  we  mean  to  conciliate  and  con- 
cede let  us  see  of  what  nature  the  concession  ought  to  be — 
Burke. 

18.  Oh  mother  mother  if  thou  hadst  seen  the  black  herd- 
bulls  pour  down  the  ravine  or  hurry  through  the  gates  when 
the  Man-pack  flung  stones  at  me— Kipling. 

19.  Thus  the  great  house  was  built  familiar  as  it  stands  in  the 
writer's  recollections  for  it  has  been  an  object  of  curiosity  with 
him  from  boyhood  both  as  a  specimen  of  the  best  and  stateliest 
architecture  of  a  long  past  epoch  and  as  the  scene  of  events 
more  full  of  human  interests  perhaps  than  those  of  a  gray 
feudal  castle  familiar  as  it  stands  in  its  rusty  old  age  it  is  there- 
fore only  the  more  di^flScult  to  imagine  the  bright  novelty  with 
which  it  first  caught  the  sunshine — Hawthorne. 

20.  After  all  they  did  not  run  away  but  waited  for  us  with 
their  spears  held  out  I  missed  the  man  I  had  marked  or  hit  him 


A    REVIEW    OF    PUNCTUATION  125 

rather  just  on  the  top  of  the  heUii  he  bent  back  and  the  spear 
slipped  over  his  head  but  rny  horse  still  kept  on  and  I  felt  pres- 
ently such  a  crash  that  I  reeled  in  my  saddle — Morris. 

21.  The  enemy  behind  us  that  grim  wall  in  front  what  wonder 
that  each  man  looked  in  his  fellows  face  for  help  and  found  it 
not — Morris. 

22.  As  we  drew  a  little  nearer  and  saw  the  whole  adjacent 
prospect  lying  a  straight  low  line  under  the  sky  I  hinted  to  Peg- 
gotty  that  a  mound  or  so  might  have  improved  it  and  also  that 
if  the  land  had  been  a  little  more  separated  from  the  sea  and 
the  town  and  the  tide  had  not  been  quite  so  much  mixed  up  like 
toast  and  water  it  would  have  been  nicer — Dickens. 

23.  When  I  was  a  boy  I  used  to  look  wistfully  at  the  green 
hillocks  that  were  said  to  be  haunted  by  fairies  and  felt  some- 
times as  if  I  should  like  to  lie  down  by  them  and  sleep  and  be 
carried  off  to  Fairy  Land  only  that  I  did  not  like  some  of  the 
cantrips  which  used  now  and  then  to  be  played  off  upon 
visitors. 

24.  In  my  native  town  of  Salem  at  the  head  of  what  half  a 
century  ago  in  the  days  of  old  King  Derby  was  a  bustling  wharf 
but  which  is  now  burdened  with  decayed  wooden  warehouses  and 
exhibits  few  or  no  symptoms  of  commercial  life  except  perhaps 
a  bark  or  brig  half  way  down  its  melanclroly  length  discharging 
hides  or  nearer  at  hand  a  Nova  Scotia  schooner  pitching  out  her 
cargo  of  firewood  at  the  head  I  say  of  this  dilapidated  wharf 
which  the  tide  often  overflows  and  along  which  at  the  base  and 
in  the  rear  of  the  row  of  buildings  the  track  of  many  languid 
years  is  seen  in  a  border  of  unthrifty  grass  here  with  a  view 
from  its  front  windows  adown  this  not  very  enlivening  prospect 
and  thence  across  the  harbor  stands  a  spacious  edifice  of  brick 
— Hawthorne. 

C.  In  what  different  ways  may  these  sentences  be 
punctuated?  Exphiin  the  change  in  meaning  produced 
by  the  change  in  punctuation. 

1.  In  any  case  he  was  not  pretending  a  thing  which  he 
despised. 

2.  His  appointment  to  office  according  to  well  recognized 
precedent  required  that  he  support  the  administration. 

3.  Deserted  by  all  but  a  few  personal  adherents  chiefly  of 
foreign  extraction  and  utterly  incapable  of  further  resistance 
John  accepted  the  articles  of  the  Barons  which  were  embodied 


12G  compositio:n"  axd  rhetoric 

in  the  Great  Charter  at  Runny mede  on  the  fifteenth  of  June 
121o— Taswell-Langmead. 

4.  The  surrender  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  independence 
of  tlie  Kingdom  completed  the  alienation  of  the  people  from  the 
King  whose  misgovernment  had  brought  on  this  national  hu- 
miliation— Ibid. 

5.  The  Chinese  who  is  in  every  respect  fit  for  citizenship  is 
excluded  while  the  Portuguese  or  Italian  who  is  absolutely 
unfit  is  admitted — Hoar. 

D.  What  are  the  three  correct  uses  of  the  dash?  Is  the 
dash  used  properly  in  this  paragraph  from  a  novel? 

"No,  no,''  said  her  stepmother,  eagerly;  "he's  never  hard  on 
them — only  on  himself.  The  Church  doesn't  expect  auytliing 
more  than  'abstinence,"  you  understand — no  real  fasting — fx-om 
people  like  them — people  who  work  hard  with  their  liands.  But 
— I  really  believe — they  do  very  much  as  he  does.  Mrs.  Denton 
seems  to  keep  the  house  on  nothing.  Oh !  and  Laura — I  really 
can't  be  always  having  extra  things!" — Mrs.  Humphry  Ward: 
Helbeck  of  Bannisdale. 

B.  What  is  the  general  purpose  for  which  the  colon  is 
used?  Find  in  your  reading  some  instances  of  the  correct 
use  of  the  colon  and  explain  them. 

F.  What  mark  of  punctuation  is  used  hefore  a  long 
quotation?  Before  a  short  one?  Before  "e.  g.,"  "i.  e.," 
"viz.,"  "as,"  and  "thus"?  When  may  a  mark  of  inter- 
rogation or  exclamation  be  placed  within  the  sentence? 

G.  Write  three  sentences  to  illustrate  the  correct  uses 
of  the  colon;  four  to  illustrate  the  correct  uses  of  the 
dash;  six,  those  of  the  comma;  five,  those  of  the  semi- 
colon. 

H.  Where  may  we  use  italics?  Are  italics  properly 
used  in  the  following  passage? 

My  dear  Madam, — Although  it  is  so  many  years  since  I 
profited  by  your  deligldfnl  and  invaluable  instructions,  yet  I 
liave  ever  retained  the  fondest  and  most  reverential  regard  for 
Miss  Pinkerton  and  dear  Chiswick.  I  hope  your  liealth  is  good. 
The  world  and  the  eause  of  education  cannot  afford  to  lo.se  Miss 


A    REVIEW    OF    PUlsTCTUATION  127 

Pinkerton  for  many  years.  When  my  friend,  Lady  Fuddleston, 
mentioned  tliat  her  dear  girls  required  an  instructress  (I  am  too 
poor  to  engage  a  governess  for  mine,  but  was  I  not  educated  at 
Chiswick?),  "Who,"  I  exclaimed,  "can  we  consult  but  the  excel- 
lent, the  incomparable  Miss  Pinkerton?"  In  a  word,  have  you, 
dear  madam,  any  ladies  on  your  list,  whose  services  might  be 
made  available  to  my  kind  friend  and  neighbor?  I  assure  you 
that  she  will  take  no  governess  hut  of  your  choosing. 

My  dear  husband  is  pleased  to  say  that  he  likes  everything 
icliich  comes  from  3Iiss  Pinkerton's  scliool.  How  I  wish  I  could 
present  him  and  my  beloved  girls  to  the  friend  of  my  youth,  and 
the  admired  of  the  great  lexicographer  of  our  country !  If  you 
ever  travel  into  Hampshire,  Mr.  Ci'awley  begs  me  to  say  he 
hopes  you  will  adorn  our  rural  rectory  with  your  i^resence. 
'Tis  the  humble  but  happy  home  of  your  affectionate  Martha 
Crawley.  — Thackeray  :  Va  n  ity  Fa  ir. 

I.   Punctuate  the  following  paragraphs: 

1.  [Tlie  following  paragrapli  describes  the  interior  of  a  room 
in  a  sailor's  house,  on  the  beach  at  Yarmouth,  England.] 

It  was  beautifully  clean  inside  and  as  tidy  as  possible  there 
was  a  table  and  a  Dutch  clock  and  a  chest  of  drawers  and  on  the 
chest  of  drawers  there  was  a  tea-tray  with  a  painting  on  it  of  a 
lady  with  a  parasol  taking  a  walk  with  a  military-looking  child 
who  was  trundling  a  hoop  the  tray  was  kept  from  tumbling 
down  by  a  bible  and  the  tray  if  it  had  tumbled  down  would  have 
smashed  a  quantity  of  cups  and  saucers  and  a  teapot  that  were 
grouped  around  the  book  on  tlie  walls  there  were  some  common 
colored  pictures  framed  and  glazed  of  Scripture  subjects  such  as 
I  have  never  seen  since  in  the  hands  of  pedlars  witliout  seeing 
the  whole  intei'ior  of  Peggotty's  brother's  house  again  at  one  view 
Abraham  in  red  going  to  sacrifice  Isaac  in  blue  and  Daniel  in 
yellow  cast  into  a  den  of  green  lions  were  the  most  prominent  of 
these  over  the  little  mantel-shelf  was  a  picture  of  the  SaraJi  Jane 
lugger  bviilt  at  Sunderland  with  a  real  little  wooden  stern  stuck 
on  to  it  a  work  of  art  combining  composition  and  carpentry 
which  I  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  enviable  po.ssessions 
that  the  world  could  afford  there  were  some  hooks  in  the  beams 
of  the  ceiling  the  use  of  which  1  did  not  then  divine  and  some 
lockers  and  boxes  and  conveniences  of  that  sort  which  served  for 
seats  and  eked  out  the  chairs — Dickens  :  David  Copperfield. 

2.  [In  this  paragrapli,  describing  what  a  child  saw  in  a  field 


128  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

of  grain,  the  word  "corn"'  means  "wheat,"'  as  it  does  in  all  books 
in  England.] 

St.  Gviido  stopped  in  the  cornfield  and  looked  all  round  there 
were  the  fir-trees  behind  him  a  thick  wall  of  green  hedges  on  the 
right  and  the  wheat  sloped  down  toward  an  ash-coiDse  in  the  hol- 
low no  one  'was  in  the  field  only  the  fir-trees  the  green  hedges 
the  yellow  wheat  and  the  sun  overhead  Guido  kept  still  because 
he  expected  that  in  a  minute  the  magic  would  begin  his  cheek 
which  had  been  flushed  with  running  grew  less  hot  his  blue  eyes 
which  had  been  wide  open  as  they  always  were  when  full  of 
mischief  became  softer  and  his  long  eyelashes  drooped  over  them 
but  as  the  magic  did  not  begin  Guido  walked  ou  slowly  into  the 
wheat  which  rose  nearly  to  his  head  though  it  was  not  so  tall  as 
it  would  be  before  the  reapers  came  he  did  not  break  any  of  the 
stalks  or  bend  them  down  and  step  on  them  and  they  yielded  on 
either  side  .  .  .  suddenly  he  thovight  sometJiing  went  over  per- 
haps it  was  the  shadow  and  he  looked  up  and  saw  a  large  bird 
not  very  far  up  not  farther  than  he  could  fling  or  shoot  his 
arrows  and  the  bird  was  fluttering  his  wings  but  did  not  move 
farther  away  as  if  he  had  been  tied  in  the  air  Guido  knew  it  was 
a  hawk  and  the  hawk  was  staying  there  to  see  if  there  was  a 
mouse  or  a  little  bird  in  the  wheat  after  a  minute  the  hawk 
stopped  fluttering  and  lifted  his  wings  together  as  a  butterfly 
does  when  he  shuts  his  and  down  the  hawk  came  straight  into 
the  corn  go  away  shouted  Guido  jumping  up  and  flinging  his 
cap  and  the  hawk  dreadfully  frightened  and  terribly  ci'oss 
checked  himself  and  rose  again  with  an  angry  rush — Richard 
Jeffries. 

J.  When  are  the  double  qiiotation  marks  used':'  When 
are  tlie  shigle  quotation  marks  used"?  Docs  every  exchiina- 
tion  require  the  exchmuition  point? 

K.  When  may  we  omit  the  comma  between  wordt^  in  a 
peries?  What  is  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  comma  before 
rehitive  dauses?     Punctuate  the  followiufi-  sentences: 

1.  Or  again  if  it  rained  and  Paris  through  tlie  studio  wiiiddw 
loomed  lead-colored  with  its  shiny  slate  roofs  under  skies  tliat 
were  ashen  and  sober  and  the  wild  west  wind  made  woeful 
nmsic  among  the  chimney  pots  and  little  gray  waves  ran  up  tlic 
river  tlie  wrcmg  way  and  the  ^Morgue  looked  chill  and  dark  ami 
wet  ami  almost  luiinviting  even  to  three  healthy-minded  young 


A    REVIEW    OF   PUNCTUATIOX  129 

Britons  they  would  resolve  to  dine  and  spend  a  happy  evening 
at  home — Du  Maurier. 

2.  It  was  a  loose  sandy  rock  which  yielded  easily  to  the  labor  I 
bestowed  upon  it — De  Foe. 

3.  For  she  stood  at  the  head  of  a  deep  green  valley  carved 
from  out  the  mountains  in  a  perfect  oval  with  a  fence  of  sheer 
rock  standing  round  it  eighty  feet  or  a  hundred  high  from  whose 
brink  black  wooded  hills  swept  up  to  the  skj'-line — Blackmore. 

4.  At  the  top  of  the  woods  which  do  not  climb  very  high  upon 
this  cold  ridge  I  struck  leftward  by  a  path  among  the  pines — 
Stevenson. 

5.  I  thought  I  had  rediscovered  one  of  those  truths  which  are 
revealed  to  savages  and  hid  from  political  economists — Steven- 
son. 

6.  The  next  day  the  young  recruit  wlio  had  been  idle  and 
overlooked  up  to  that  time  was  brought  in  to  be  made  part  of 
the  big  machine. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
LETTERS 

50.  Letter  Writing. — The  one  form  of  composition  that 
we  are  all  called  upon  to  practice  almost  daily  is  letter- 
writing.  As  letters  are  more  or  less  informal  communica- 
tions between  business  correspondents  or  friends,  they  are 
more  personal  than  other  kinds  of  writing,  and  hence  are 
usually  more  conversational  in  style.  Yet  in  sjiite  of 
this  informality,  letters  should  never  be  slipshod  in 
spelling,  punctuation,  grammar,  or  paragraphing.  The 
writer  of  a  letter  betrays  at  a  glance  to  his  correspondent 
his  general  education  and  cultivation;  that  *'tlie  style  is 
the  man"  is  never  truer  than  in  the  case  of  letters.^ 

As  an  exercise  in  composition  there  are  few  better  tasks 
than  writing  letters.  The  sense  of  having  a  correspond- 
ent who  will  read  our  words  with  interest  stimulates  the 
imagination  and  makes  writing  a  pleasure,  ^\e  should 
remember  that  good  letters  are  always  personal,  but  not 
necessarily  egotistic;  that  is,  what  the  correspondent 
wishes  to  receive  in  a  letter  is  the  Avriter's  i^ersonality — his 
thoughts  and  feelings  and  opinions — but  not  an  account 
of  his  private  affairs  or  woes. 

51.  Usage  in  Letters. — Custom  has  regulated  in  general 


1 A  distinction  should  be  made  between  letters  and  notes,  which  are 
merely  brief  messages  on  specific  topics.  It  is  frequently  said  to-day  that 
letter -writing  is  a  lost  art,  and  that  we  write  only  notes.  If  this  be  true,  one 
of  the  most  delightful  forms  of  literature  has  died.  Both  English  and  French 
literature  contain  many,  entertaining  volumes  of  pleasantly  wi'itten 
letters  by  noteworthy  persons.  Such  letters  make  the  best  biographies. 
Among  others  in  English  are  Scott's  Letters  and  Journals;  Lowell's  Letters; 
Stevenson's  Vailima  Letters;  Arnold's  Letters;  also  the  letters  of  Emerson, 
Carlyle,  George  Eliot,  Longfellow,  and  Cowper. 

130 


LETTERS  131 

the  forms  of  letters,  i.  e.,  the  manner  of  address  and 
subscription,  and  the  position  of  address  and  dates. 
No  other  kind  of  composition  is  regulated  by  such  rigid 
usages  as  letters.  These  forms  should  be  observed 
invariably,  for  any  marked  deviation  from  them  indicates 
either  ignorance  or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 
52.  Business  Letters. — Forms. — 1.  In  a  business  letter 
the  full  address  of  the  writer  should  be  placed  with 
the  date  in  the  uj^per  right-hand  corner  of  the  first 
page,  unless  it  is  printed  as  a  letter-head.  2.  The  title, 
name,  and  address  of  the  person  or  firm  to  whom  the 
letter  is  sent  should  be  placed  to  the  left  above  the  body 
of  the  letter.  3.  "Sir:—",  "Sirs:—",  "Dear  Sir:—", 
"Dear  Sirs: — ",  and  "Gentlemen: — ",  are  the  proper 
forms  of  introduction.  I'lie  last  form  is  usually  reserved 
for  letters  not  purely  commercial;  e.  g.,  letters  to  a  firm 
of  lawyers  or  bankers,  or  to  officers  of  an  institution. 
4.  The  conclusion  (sometimes  called  the  "  term  of 
respect")  may  be  "Yours  truly,"  "Very  truly  yours," 
or  rarely,  "Respectfully  yours."  Terms  of  excessive 
politeness,  such  as  "Your  obedient  servant,"  "Humbly 
yours,"  and  ," Respectfully  yours,"  once  customary  in 
English  and  to-day  common  in  French,  are  no  longer  used 
by  English  writers  in  general  correspondence.  "Respect- 
fully" is  reserved  for  very  formal  letters,  such  as  public 
letters,  petitions,  and  letters  to  heads  of  institutions. 
Note  that  capitals  are  used  only  with  the  first  word  of 
the  term  of  respect. 

Example. 

100  Washington  St.,  Clucago, 
Messrs.  J.  Scott  &  Co.,  Oct.  1,  1903. 

181  State  St., 

Boston,  Mass. 
Dear  Sirs : — 

Very  truly  yours, 

Clarke  &  Clarke. 


132  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

Stijlc. — A  iDusiness  letter  Bhould  be  brief  and  specific, 
but  courteous.  It  is  not  courteous  to  abbreviate  every 
other  Avord,  to  omit  verbs  and  other  important  words, 
or  to  use  shmg.  A  business  letter  should  not  be  a 
telegraphic  message;  e.  g.,  "Yours  at  hand,  contents 
noted.  Quality  0.  K.  Send  X.  Y.  3  bbls.  C.  0.  D." 
Nothing  is  gained  by  a  haste  that  does  not  permit  cour- 
tesy. Conventional  phrases  in  introduction*  and  con- 
clusion should  be  avoided.  It  is  well  to  write  only  on  one 
side  of  the  paper. 

53.  Formal  Letters  in  the  First  Person.  • — These  resemble 
business  letters  in  that  they  are  written  about  some 
special  matter  and,  within  the  demands  of  politeness, 
sbould  be  brief.  They  are  public  letters,  letters  to  stran- 
gers or  persons  slightly  acquainted  with  the  writer,  peti- 
tions, and  letters  asking  or  conferring  favors. 

Forms. — 1.  The  address  and  date  are  given  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  business  letters.  2.  The  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  the  letter  is  sent  (often  without  address)  is 
usually  placed  at  the  close,  to  the  left  of  the  signa- 
ture. 3.  Introductions  are  "Dear  Sir: — "  (or  "Dear 
Madam:—"),  "My  dear  Sir:—",  "Gentlemen:—". 
4.  The  subscription  may  be  "Very  truly  yours,"  "Faith- 
fully yours,"  or  "Kespectfully  yours,"  as  occasion 
requires. 

Example. 

10  Oak  wood  Park,  Chicago, 
July  15,  1902. 

My  dear  Sir: — 

Faithfully  your.s, 

A.  A.  Smith. 
Elton  Lock,  Esq.' 

54.  Formal  Letters  in  the  Third  Person. — Custom  has 
prescribed  arbitrary  rules   governing  formal  invitations, 

>  The  use  of  Esq.  (esquire)  after  the  name  Instead  of  Mr.  is  gradually 
disappearing.  Originally  the  title  implied  a  distinction.  Mr.  and  Esq. 
should  never  be  used  together. 


LETTERS  133 

acceptances,  and  regrets.  They  should  be  written  in  the 
third  person  throughout,  and  the  phrasing  should  follow 
conventional  models.  The  address  and  date  {written  out) 
should  be  placed  at  the  lower  left-hand  of  the  page;  the 
date  of  entertainment,  the  hour,  and  the  place,  should  be 
written  in  full.^ 

55.  Informal  Notes. — For  informal  notes  and  letters 
there  are  a  great  variety  of  forms  suitable  for  ditferent 
purposes.  Introductions  and  conclusions  should  be  modi- 
fied to  show  the  relationship  between  the  correspondents. 
Addresses  and  dates  should  be  given  invariably ;  they  may 
be  placed  at  the  upper  right-hand  of  the  sheet,  or  the 
lower  left-hand  opiDOsite  the  signature,  as  the  writer  pre- 
fers. It  is  customary  to  omit  the  name  and  address  of 
the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent.  Introductions 
vary  in  formality,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table : 

Dear  Mr.  Smith : —  Dear  Smith : — 

My  dear  Mr.  Smith : —  Dear  Henry : — 

My  dear  Smith : —  Dear  Hal : —  etc. 

Conclusions  also  vary  widely,  but  the  forms  given  below 
are  most  often  used : 

Ver}'^  truly  yours.  Faithfully  yours, 

Sincerely  yours,  Cordially  yours. 

Very  sincerely  yours,  Affectionately  yours. 
Ever  sincerely  yours, 

56.  Cautions. — Certain  "don'ts"  will  be  found  useful: 

1.  Don't  forget  to  leave  margins,  to  punctuate,  or  to 
make  paragraphs. 

2.  Never  begin  a  note  with  "Dear  friend,"  or  "Friend" 
(as  "Friend  Smith,"  or  "Friend  Tom"). 

3.  Kever  conclude  with  "Fraternally  yours"  ;  never  say 
merely  "Yours,"  nor  omit  the  "yours"  in  other  forms. 


•  As  formal  letters  in  the  third  person  are  largely  social  in  use  and  vary 
from  time  to  time  according  to  fashion,  it  has  been  thought  best  not  to  give 
any  examples.  The  teacher  wiU  be  able  to  supply  models  of  formal  invi- 
tations, acceptances,  and  regrets. 


134  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

4.  Never  end  a  note :  "I  am  well,  and  hoping  you  are  the 
same";  "I  am,  etc.,"  and  similar  forms.  Be  sure  that 
your  final  sentence  when  it  is  united  with  the  subscription 
is  grammatical;  such  expressions  as  "Trusting  that 
you  will  be  able  to  make  this  arrangement,  Very  truly 
yours,"  are  wrong,  supply  "I  am"  before  the  term  of 
respect. 

5.  Never  sign  a  note  with  your  initials  or  your  first 
name  only,  unless  you  are  writing  to  an  intimate  friend. 

6.  Never  sign  a  letter  with  a  title.  Give  the  surname 
or  initials  and  the  proper  name,  and  in  case  it  is  neces- 
sary to  indicate  the  title,  write  it  out  at  one  side  or  under- 
neath, as: 

J.  W.  Jones,  or  Mary  M.  Jones  (Mrs.  John  W.  Jones) 

Secretary. 

7.  Single  ladies  are  addressed  as  follows: 

Miss  Smith  (eldest  daughter). 
Miss  Jane  Smith  (younger  daughter) . 
The  Misses  Smith;  or  the  Miss  Smiths  (collectively). 
Madam  (referring  to  single  or  married  lady,  to  correspond  in 
use  to  "Sir"'  or  "Dear  Sir"). 

Exercise  VIII 

A.  Write  out  on  the  blackl)()ard  the  usual  forms  of 
headings  and  introductions  to  letters  between  friends; 
punctuate  and  capitalize  the  forms  correctly. 

B.  As  in  A,  write  out  the  forms  of  subscriptions  and 
signatures. 

C.  What  are  the  correct  forms  in  Avriting  to  a  real- 
estate  firm?  To  your  lawyers?  To  the  school  board?  In 
petitioning  the  city  council?  In  introducing  a  friend  to 
a  business  acquaintance  in  another  city?  In  writing  a 
letter  to  the  editor  of  a  daily  paper? 

D.  Criticise  the  following  letters  both  for  form  and 
style.     Rewrite  them. 


LETTERS  135 

Watertown,  Indiana,  March  19th,  1898. 

Morton  Brick  Co.,  Chicago,  111. — Gentlemen:  Your  prices  on 
brick  under  date  of  Feb.  3  are  much  too  high.  What  we  want 
prices  on  is  the  dark  red  'kxx  brick,  also  on  dark  mottled  411. 
Separate  price  on  each  also  price  on  circle  brick  same  sort.  But 
few  of  411  will  be  used  in  fact  only  what  are  required  for  trim- 
ming or  pattern  work.  Your  prices  to  include  delivery  at 
Watertown  also  mention  cash  discount  for  10  day  settlement. 

Your  prompt  reply  to  the  above  will  be  requii'ed  if  you  wish 
to  do  business  with  me.  Yours  truly, 

B.  L.  Haynes. 

Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  Jan.  9,  1898. 
Morton  B.  Co. ,  Chicago,  111.  — Sirs :  If  you  want  a  good  reliable 
traveling  man,  I  am  open  for  engagement.  I  understand  hand- 
ling contractors  and  architects  and  will  work  cheap.  I  under- 
stand brick  and  can  give  good  references.  Any  territory 
anywhere  in  the  U.  S.  so  long  as  I  can  get  to  work  and  earn 
something.  Resp. 

Jim  F.  Dean. 

Mrs.  William  Stone  regrets  that  she  cannot  accept  Mrs.  Sat- 
ter's  invitation  for  Wednesday  evening,  the  fifth. 
Sincerely  yours, 

Ellen  Stone. 

I  regret  that  I  cannot  accept  your  kind  invitation  for  Wednes- 
day next.  Truly  yours, 

Mrs.  John  R.  Smith. 

I  accept  with  pleasure  the  very  kind  invitation  of  Mrs.  Satters 
for  Wednesday  evening,  February  fifth. 

Sincerely, 

Grace  Hilton. 

Dean  of  Oxford  University :  Your  letter  of  the  21st  to  hand 
and  contents  noted.  I  want  to  put  in  1  yr.  at  some  school. 
Have  had  3  yrs.  work  in  Cal.  State  Normal  Univ.  My  principal 
was  Prof.  G.  A.  Wilson.  Believe  I  am  up  in  everything  except 
Latin,  having  had  nothing  above  "Caesar"  (4  books).  Would 
be  much  obliged  to  you  for  full  information.  Philosophical 
course  especially.     Respt'y 

James  B.  Good,  Allenville,  Col. 

Sec'y  Oxford  University — Sir :  Please  send  catalogue  of  your 
university  and  oblige.     I  have  a  son  whom  I  am  thinking  of 


lot;  COMPOSITIOX    AND    KlIETOKIC 

sending  to  tin-  U.  and  wish  tlie   catalogue  to  help  determine 
what  studies  lie  may  take,  &c.     Yours,  &c. 

F.  R.  Johnson 
Prof.  Bartlett:     Having  been  detained  at  home  on  acc't  of  sick- 
ness in  the  family  it  will  be  impossible  for  me  to  attend  your 
class  to-day,  so  I  send  my  written  work  by  a  friend,  and  hope  to 
be  back  soon.  R.  B.  Atkinson. 

E.  Should  you  ever  use  the  following  form? 
Prof.  A.  C.  Smith  :•- 

I  was  imavoidably  detained,  etc. 

F.  Examine    carefully   the    following   letters.       What 
good  qualities  do  they  exemplify':' 

Jeypore,  January  2,  1883. 
My  dear  Gertie: 

I  wisii  you  had  been  here  with  me  j'esterday. 
We  would  have  had  a  beautiful  time.  You  would  have  had  to 
get  up  at  five  o'clock,  for  at  six  tiie  carriage  was  at  the  door 
and  we  had  already  had  our  breakfast.  But  in  this  countrj' 
you  do  everything  you  can  very  early,  so  as  to  escape  the  hot 
sun.  It  is  very  hot  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  but  quite  cold  now 
at  night  and  in  the  mornings  and  the  evenings.  Well,  as  \\e 
drove  along  into  the  town  (for  the  bungalow  where  we  were 
staying  is  just  outside),  the  sun  rose  and  all  the  streets  were  fidl 
of  light.  The  town  is  all  painted  pink,  which  makes  it  the 
(jueere.st  looking  place  you  ever  saw;  and  on  the  outside  of  the 
pink  liouses  there  are  pictures  drawn,  some  of  them  very 
solemn,  and  .some  of  them  very  funny,  which  makes  it  very 
pleasant  to  drive  iqi  the  street.  We  drove  through  the  street, 
which  was  crowded  with  camels  and  elephants  and  donkeys, 
and  women  wrapped  up  like  bundles,  and  men  chattering  like 
monkeys,  and  monkeys  themselves,  and  naked  little  children 
rolling  in  the  dust  and  playing  queer  Jeypore  games.  All  the 
little  girls,  when  they  get  to  be  about  your  age,  hang  jewels  in 
tlieir  no.ses,  and  the  women  all  have  their  noses  looking  beaiUi- 
fvd  in  this  waj'.  I  liave  got  a  nose-jewel  for  you,  which  I  shall 
l>ut  in  when  I  get  home,  and  also  a  little  button  for  the  side  of 
Susie's  nose,  sucJi  as  the  smaller  cliildren  wear.  Think  how  the 
girls  at  school  will  admii-e  you!  AVell,  we  drove  out  the  other 
side  of  the  queer  pink  town,  and  went  on  toward  the  old  town 
which  they  deserted  a  hundred  years  ago,  when  they  built  this. 


LETTERS  137 

...  As  we  drove  along  toward  it,  the  fields  were  full  of  pea- 
cocks and  all  sorts  of  bright -winged  birds,  and  out  of  the  ponds 
and  streams  the  crocodiles  stuck  up  their  lazy  heads  and  looked 
at  us. 

The  hills  around  are  full  of  tigers  and  hyenas,  but  they  do  not 
come  down  to  the  town,  though  I  saw  a  cage  of  them  there 
which  had  been  captured  only  about  a  month  and  they  were  very 
fierce.  Poor  things!  When  we  came  to  the  entrance  of  the  old 
town  there  was  a  splendid  great  elephant  waiting  for  us,  which 
the  rajah  had  sent.  He  sent  the  carriage  too.  The  elephant  had 
his  head  and  trunk  beautifully  painted,  and  looked  almost  as  big 
as  Jvunbo.  He  knelt  down  and  we  climbed  up  by  a  ladder  and 
sat  upon  his  back,  and  then  he  toiled  up  the  hill.  Behind  us  as 
we  went  up  the  hill,  came  a  man  leading  a  little  black  goat,  and 
when  I  asked  what  it  was  for  they  said  it  was  for  sacrifice  It 
seems  a  horrid  old  goddess  has  a  temple  on  the  hill,  and  years 
ago  they  used  to  sacrifice  men  to  her,  to  make  her  happy  and 
kind.  But  a  merciful  rajah  stopped  that  and  made  them  sacri- 
fice goats  instead,  and  now  they  give  the  horrid  old  goddess  a 
goat  every  morning,  and  she  likes  it  just  as  well. 

"When  we  got  into  the  old  town  it  was  a  perfect  wilderness  of 
beautiful  things— lakes,  temples,  palaces,  porticos,  all  sorts  of 
things  in  marble  and  fine  stones,  with  sacred,  long-tailed  mon- 
keys running  over  all.  But  I  must  tell  you  all  about  the  goddess 
and  the  way  they  cut  off  the  poor  little  goafs  poor  little  black 
head,  and  all  the  rest  that  I  saw,  when  I  get  home.  Don't  you 
wish  you  had  gone  with  me? 

.  Give  my  love  to  your  father  and  mother  and  Agnes  and  Susie. 
I  am  dying  to  know  about  your  Christmas  and  the  presents.  Do 
not  forget  your  affectionate  uncle, 

Phillips. 

[Phillips  Brooks  to  his  niece  Emily  A. .] 

Naliant,  August  18,  1859. 

Your  letter  followed  me  down  here  by  the  seaside,  where  I  am 
passing  the  summer  with  my  three  little  girls.  The  oldest  is 
about  your  age;  but  as  little  girls'  ages  keep  changing  every 
year,  I  can  never  remember  how  old  she  is,  and  have  to  ask  her 
mamma,  who  has  a  better  memory  than  I  have.  Her  name  is 
Alice ;  I  never  forget  that.  She  is  a  nice  girl,  and  loves  poetry 
almost  as  much  as  you  do. 

The  second  is  Edith,  with  blue  eyes  and  beautiful  golden  locks 


138  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

which  I  sometimes  call  her  "nankeen  hair,"  to  make  her  laugh. 
She  is  a  very  busy  little  woman,  and  wears  gray  boots. 

The  youngest  is  Allegra;  which  you  know  means  merry;  and 
she  is  the  merriest  little  thing  you  ever  saw — always  singing  and 
laughing  all  over  the  house. 

Those  are  my  three  little  girls,  and  Mr.  Read  has  painted  them 
all  in  one  picture,  which  I  hope  you  will  see  some  day.  They 
bathe  in  the  sea,  and  dig  in  the  .sand, 'and  patter  about  the  piazza 
all  day  long,  and  sometimes  go  to  see  the  Indians  encamped  on 
the  shore,  and  buy  baskets  and  bows  and  arrows. 

I  do  not  say  anything  about  the  two  boys.  They  are"  such 
noisy  fellows  that  it  is  no  use  to  talk  about  them. 

And  now,  dear  Miss  Emily,  give  my  love  to  your  papa,  and 
goodnight,  with  a  kiss,  from  his  friend  and  yours. 

[Longfellow.] 

Abbotsford,  3d  May 
(very  like  8d  March  in  temperature)  [1813]. 
My  dear  Sophia: 

I  received  j'our  letter  in  which  you  say 
nothing  of  Walter's  schooling.  I  hope  that  goes  on  well.  I  am 
sorry  to  say  that  poor  Andy  is  no  more.  He  lost  the  use  of 
his  hind  legs,  so  we  were  obliged  to  have  him  shot  out  of 
humanity.  This  will  vex  little  Anne,  but  as  the  animal  could 
never  have  been  of  the  least  use  to  her,  she  has  the  less  reason  to 
I'egret  his  untimely  death ;  and  I  will  study  to  give  her  some- 
thing that  she  will  like  as  well,  to  make  amends,  namely,  a  most 
beautiful  peacock  and  peahen,  so  tame  that  they  come  to  the 
porch  and  feed  out  of  the  children's  hands.  They  were  a  present 
from  Mertoun,  and  I  will  give  them  to  little  Anne,  to  make 
amends  for  this  family  loss  of  the  donkey.  I  have  got  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  museum,  some  of  tlie  hair  of  Charles  I.  cut  from 
tlie  head  when  his  coffin  was  discovered  about  a  month  ago  in 
St.  George's  chapel  at  Wind.sor.  .  .  .  Tiie  hair  is  a  light  brown. 
This  is  my  best  news.  The  worst  is  that  everything  is  suffering 
from  cold  and  drought.  Give  my  kind  love  to  Walter,  Anne,  and 
little  Charles.  .  .  .  Mamma  joins  in  kind  compliments  to  Miss 
Miller,  and  I  am  always  your  affectionate  papa, 

Walter  Scott. 
[Sir  Walter  Scott  to  his  daughter.] 

G.  Wliat  defects  do  you  find  in  these  e.xpressions,  fre- 
quently found  in  letters; 


LETTERS  139 

1.  Your  favor  of  18th  inst.  to  hand  and  contents  noted. 

2.  I  shall  be  glad  to  get  your  reply.     And  oblige  .  .  . 

3.  Yours,  &c.,  &c. 

4.  Yours  received  and  veill  say. 

5.  Your  letter  to  hand.     In  reply  to  same,  etc. 

6.  Yours  resp'y. 

7.  Should  have  replied  earlier  but  have  been  too  busy. 

8.  I  am  in  good  health  and  hope  this  finds  you  enjoying  the 
same  blessing. 

9.  I  take  my  pen  in  liand  to  inform  you. 

10.  Having  a  few  moments  to  spare,  I  write. 

11.  I  will  drop  you  a  line. 

12.  With  the  compliments  of  the  season. 

13.  No  more  at  present.     From  yours  truly. 

14.  I  must  close  now. 

H.  Where  are  dates  placed  in  the  different  forms  of 
letters?  When  may  we  omit  the  name  of  the  city  or  town 
in  the  address?  When  and  where  do  we  write  the  name 
and  the  address  of  the  correspondent  for  whom  the  letter 
is  intended?  When  will  you  use  "Respectfully"  in  a  con- 
clusion?    "Faithfully"? 

/.  Write  the  following  letters : 

1.  An  order  for  books. 

2.  An  acknowledgment  of  the  receipt  of  money. 

3.  A  note  inviting  a  friend  to  spend  a  week  with  you  in  the 
country. 

4.  A  petition  to  the  school  board. 

5.  A  letter  to  an  editor  on  a  public  matter. 

6.  A  letter  of  introduction. 

7.  A  letter  to  the  secretary  of  a  club  or  society. 

8.  A  letter  to  your  teacher. 

9.  A  letter  of  inquiry  to  the  mayor  of  a  town. 

10.  A  letter  of  complaint  to  a  railroad  corporation. 

11.  A  news  letter  for  a  journal. 

12.  A  letter  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  about  a  piece  of  real 
estate. 

13.  A  note  to  your  washerwoman. 

14.  A  note  to  the  milkman. 

15.  A  letter  asking  your  congressman  to  appoint  you  as  a  naval 
cadet. 


140  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

/.  "What  form  (address  aud  subscription)  should  you 
use  in  writing  to  a  single  lady  Avhom  you  have  not  met? 
To  a  gentleman  much  older  than  yourself? 

K.  What  good  qualities  do  these  letters  exemplify? 

An  Informal  Ihgret 
Dear  Mrs.  Dudley: 

I  find  at  the  last  minute  that  I  cannot  enjoy 
the  conii^any  of  my  kind  this  evening,  and  send  most  hearty 
regrets.  I  have  a  little  bit  of  work  which  should  have  been 
done  last  November.  Until  January  I  kept  the  task  at  bay  by 
excuses;  until  May  I  held  it  off  by  promises;  and  now  in  the  last 
ditch  I  am  reduced  to  performing  it.  1  am  thus  circumstantial 
that  you  maj*  see  that,  in  spite  of  appearances,  or,  rather,  non- 
appearance, I  am  at  the  bottom  worthy  of  the  occasion  and  of 
your  kind  invitation.  Very  sincei'ely  yours. 

May  fifteenth.  Ellis  Winston. 

An  Informal  Acceptance 
My  dear  Mrs.  Westcott : 

It  was  a  very  pleasant  surprise  to  get  your 
note  inviting  Mr.  Vane  and  me  to  dine  with  you  on  Friday  eve- 
ning. We  have  been  looking  forward  to  your  return  ever  since 
our  own.  Your  note,  in  fact,  was  what  was  necessary  to  assure 
us  that  we  were  indeed  at  home.  Need  I  say  that  it  gives  us 
great  pleasure  to  accept  your  invitation.  Remember  us  most 
cordially  to  Mr.  Westcott.     Sincerely  yours, 

Anne  Horton  Vane. 

A  Note  of  AcJcnowledgment 
,  To  John  B.  Dibdin,  Esq., 
My  dear  Sir : 

I  must  appear  negligent  in  not  having  thanked 
you  for  the  very  pleasant  books  you  sent  me.  Arthur  and  the 
novel,  we  have  both  of  us  read  with  unmixed  satisfaction.  They 
are  full  of  quaint  conceits,  and  running  over  with  good  humor 
and  good  nature.  I  naturally  take  little  interest  in  stories,  but  in 
these  the  manner  and  not  the  end  is  the  interest;  it  is  such 
pleasant  travelling  one  scarce  cares  whither  it  leads  us.  Pray 
express  my  pleasure  to  your  father  with  my  best  thanks. 

I  am  involved  in  a  routine  of  visiting  among  the  family  of 


LETTERS  l-il 

Barron  Field,  just  returned  from  Botany  Bay.     I  shall  hardly 

have  an  open  evening  before  Tuesday  next.     Will  you  come  to 

us  then?  Yours  truly, 

C.  Lamb. 

A  Formal  Letter  in  the  First  Person 

120  Park  Row, 

Washington,  D.  C, 

April  28,  1900. 
My  dear  Sir : 

I  have  been  requested  by  the  executive  committee  of 
the  National  Reform  League  to  ask  the  co-operation  of  such  per- 
sons as  may  be  interested  in  the  work  of  the  League.  The 
enclosed  circular  will  acquaint  you  witli  the  objects  and  methods 
of  the  society,  if  you  are  not  already  familiar  with  them. 
Subscriptions  may  be  sent  to  J.  D.  Frost,  Esq.,  Treasurer. 

Faithfully  yours, 
Thomas  Wood,  Esq.  John  Wright,  Secretary. 

Business  Letters 

Broadwood,  Indiana, 
April  1,  1899. 
Messrs.  Brooks  and  Train, 

Chicago,  111. 
Gentlemen : 

Mr.  John  Adcock  of  our  firm  will  call  upon  you  in 
Chicago  and  confer  with  you  in  regard  to  our  suit  against  the 
Lawson  company.  Mr.  Adcock  has  authority  to  act  for  us  in  this 
matter  and  to  make  whatever  settlement  he  may  deem  best. 

Trusting  that  you  will  be  able  to  assist  him  in  bringing  about 
a  satisfactory  agreement  with  the  Lawson  company,  we  are. 
Very  truly  yours, 

The  Broadwood  Manufacturing  Co., 
A.  S.  Stanton,  President. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. , 
June  6,  1900. 
John  Wilkins,  Esq., 

Troy,  New  York. 
Dear  Sir: 

In  reply  to  your  letter  of  the  4th  instant,  we  take  pleas- 
ure in  enclosing  the  memorandum  of  a  loan  for  §1,000.00,  which 
we  can   recommend.      Tlie    property   upon   which  the   loan  is 


7 
142  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

made  is  owned  by  Frank  W.  High  wood,  who  is  a  contractor 
of  good  standing  in  this  city.  If  you  should  want  this,  we  hope 
that  you  will  reply  by  return  mail,  as  loans  of  this  kind  are  very 
scarce.  Very  truly  j-ours, 

Field,  Potter,  and  Field, 
By  J.  H.  Potter. 

100  Dearborn  Street, 
Chicago,  111., 

February  7,  1898. 
Holland  and  Davis, 

Monadnock  Building, 
Chicago,  111. 
Dear  Sirs: 

George  I.  Hall  and  Company,  General  Contractors,  79 
Randolph  Street,  Chicago,  have  made  application  to  this  com- 
pany to  become  surety  upon  a  bond  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  a  contract,  and  liave  given  us  your  name  as  one  of  their 
references.  Will  you  kindly  inform  us  what  you  know  of  this 
firm,  and  give  us  your  opinion  as  to  its  financial  standing'?  Your 
reply  will  not  involve  any  responsibility  upon  your  part  and  will 
be  considered  confidential.     Very  truly  yours, 

Smith  Surety  Company, 
By  James  Fields,  Assistant  Secretary. 


PAET  II 

USAGE 


CHAPTER    IX 

GOOD  USE 

57.  The  Basis  of  "Good  Use." — "Words,  like  pieces  ol 
money,  are  but  symbols ;  they  stand  for  the  ideas  which 
we  Avish  to  transfer  from  oar  mind  to  the  mind  of  some- 
one else.  Moreover,  they  are  arhitrarij  symbols.  There 
is  no  reason,  except  custom,  why  "man"  should  mean 
"man,"  and  "bear"  mean  "bear,"  and  if  we  were  to  coin 
these  words  to-day,  we  could  perfectly  well  make  "bear" 
mean  "human  animal,"  and  "man"  mean  "a  member  of 
the  genus  ursiis.''^  Of  course,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  can 
not  invert  the  ideas,  because  the  two  words  have  stood  so 
long  in  the  language  in  just  their  present  meaning,  that 
any  attempt  to  change  that  meaning  would  cause  con- 
fusion: all  who  use  English  unite  in  giving  these 
words  their  present  significance.  About  every  word 
or  construction  used  by  English-speaking  people  there  is  a 
more  or  less  general  agreement.  When,  as  in  the  cases 
cited  above,  the  agreement  is  universal,  and  no  educated 
American  or  Englishman  uses  the  terms  in  any  other  sense, 
the  words  are  said  to  be  in  good  use.  When  only  a  few  people 
or  only  the  uneducated  use  a  word  or  a  construction,  that 
word  or  construction  is  said  to  be  in  bad  use.  For 
instance,  good  use  rejects  "ain't"  for  "isn't"  or  "hasn't," 

143 


144  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

"foxy  old  cove"  for  "sly  old  man,"  and  "He  don't"  for 
"He  doesn't." 

There  are  at  least  two  obvious  reasons  for  observing  good 
use.  First,  we  wish  to  be  intelligible,  not  to  one  or  two 
men,  but  to  all  whom  we  address.  If  the  inhabitant  of 
Maine  is  free  to  make  "masterful"  mean  "very,"  while 
the  westerner  makes  "powerful"  do  duty  for  the  same 
idea;  if  the  manager  of  a  theatre  is  free  to  call  an  illus- 
trated lecture  a  "travelogue,"  and  ^Ir.  Kipling  to  s})eak 
of  the  "coolth  of  the  evening,"  there  is  no  reason  why 
everybody  may  not  change  meanings  and  invent  words  at 
Avill.  Then  our  language  would  mean,  not  what  a  whole 
people  understood  it  to  mean,  but  what  you  or  I  or  our 
neighbors  wished  it  to  mean.  Under  those  circumstances 
clearness  in  the  communication  of  thought  would  be 
impossible.  The  second  reason  is  that,  rightly  or  wrongly, 
the  world  measures  a  man's  culture  very  largely  by  the 
degree  of  correctness  he  displays  in  the  use  of  his  mother- 
tongue.  If  he  habitually  employs  forms  of  speech  not  in 
good  use,  lie  is  called  illiterate. 

58.  Good  Use  a  Relative  Term. — "We  do  more  than  agree 
that  some  ways  of  expression  shall  be  acceptable  and 
others  shall  not.  We  even  agree  that  some  words  and 
constructions  shall  be  acceptal)le  only  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances. Conversation,  formal  speech,  and  writing 
have,  one  and  all,  somewliat  different  habits  of  diction.  To 
speak  of  a  man  as  "a  mean  old  curmudgeon"  would  pass 
in  conversation,  but  would  shock  us  if  wo  heard  it  from 
the  pulpit  or  the  lecturer's  desk,  or  found  it  in  an  essay. 
The  homely  western  metaphor,  "to  pan  out,"  may  lend 
force  to  conversation  or  informal  writing,  but  would  be 
out  of  place  in  a  history  of  the  United  States.  Hence, 
if  we  wish  to  use  English  properly,  we  must  consider, 
not  only  whether  a  word  is  good  English,  but  also 
whether  it  is  good  English  in  the  circumstances   under 


GOOD    USE  145 

which  we  employ  it.  As  we  go  fi'om  free  and  easy  con- 
versation to  the  more  formal  kinds  of  writing,  we  find  the 
vocabulary  in  good  use  becoming,  not,  to  be  sure, 
stiffer  or  smaller,  but  more  "learned,"  more  formal.  This 
question  of  appropriateness  will  be  dealt  with  more  fully 
later:  Just  now  we  are  more  concerned  with  learning  what 
is  always  right  or  always  wrong. 

59.  Good  Use  Defined. — In  settling  what  is  English 
the  whole  English  race  has  a  voice,  but,  not  unwisely, 
they  delegate  a  portion  of  their  power.  Just  as  in  mak- 
ing our  political  laws  we  place  the  duty  of  framing  the 
statutes  in  the  hands  of  men  elected  presumably  because 
of  special  fitness,  so  in  making  our  laws  of  speech,  we  in 
a  manner  elect  a  special  body  of  men  to  literary  preemi- 
nence, and  agree,  when  their  customs  of  expression  do  not 
diverge  too  widely  from  common  consent,  to  accept  those 
customs  as,  for  the  moment,  the  law  of  speech.  The  fact 
that  the  street  boy  uses  "ain't,"  for  instance,  is  not  of 
the  least  importance;  the  fact  that  Raskin  and  Tennyson 
and  Lowell  and  Lincoln,  and,  iiuleed,  all  good  writers, 
avoid  the  word,  is  important.  To  find  out  the  standing  of 
a  word  or  a  construction,  then,  we  must  turn  to  the  usage 
of  those  speakers  and  writers  who  use  the  language  with 
the  best  results.  In  brief,  a  word  or  a  construction  is  not 
in  good  use  unless  it  is  used  by  a  large  number  of  the  best 
writers  and  speakers  of  our  own  age  and  country.  Dic- 
tionaries and  rhetorics  do  no  more  than  record  the  custom 
of  these  men. 

The  ultimate  power,  however,  the  nation  at  large  always 
keeps  in  its  own  hands.  In  doubtful  cases,  writers  must 
decide,  not  on  grounds  of  whim,  but  of  fitness  and  neces- 
sity. Time  and  again  great  writers  have  set  themselves 
the  task  of  stemming  the  tide  setting  in  favor  of  a  certain 
word,  only  to  be  swept  away.  Many  words  Avhich 
William   Cullen   Bryant,   thirty  years  ago  editor  of    the 


146  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

New  York  Evening  Post,  refused  to  admit  in  that  paper 
have  finally  been  accepted  despite  his  protest.  Such, 
for  example,  are  "taboo"  and  "leniency."  And  Cole- 
ridge, Avriting  in  1832,  said: 

I  regret  to  see  that  vile  and  barbarous  vocable  "talented," 
stealing  out  of  the  newspapers  into  the  leading  reviews  and  most 
respectable  publications  of  the  day.  Why  not  "shillinged," 
"farthinged,"  "tenpenced,''  etc.?  The  formation  of  a  participle 
passive  from  a  noun  is  a  license  which  nothing  but  a  very  pecul- 
iar felicity  can  excuse.  If  mere  convenience  is  to  justify  svich 
attempts  upon  the  idiom,  you  cannot  stop  till  the  language 
becomes,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  corrupt.  —  Cole- 
ridge: Table  Talk. 

Yet  "talented"  is  to-day  a  perfectly  good  word. 

Good  use  is,  then,  the  national  taste  in  matters  of  lan- 
guage, controlled  or  supervised  by  the  more  careful  taste  of 
scholars  and  men  of  letters. 

60.  The  Three  Requirements  of  Good  Use. — To  be  in 
good  use,  a  word  or  a  construction  must  be  in  "present," 
"national,"  and  "reputable"  use. 

The  good  use  of  constructions,  called  grammar  and 
idiotn,  will  be  discussed  in  later  chapters.  The  rest  of 
this  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the 
termc  "present,"  "national,"  and  "reputable"  so  far  as 
they  apply  to  single  words,  and,  in  the  main,  to  single 
words  as  they  appear  in  writing  rather  than  in  ordinary 
conversation.  For,  as  has  been  stated,  the  standards  of 
speech  and  of  writing  are  not  always  tlie  same. 

61.  Present  Use. — First,  a  word  must  be  intelligible  to 
the  present  generation.  Words,  like  human  beings,  live 
and  die,  and  expressions  perfectly  familiar  to  the  men  of 
two  hundred  years,  or  even  of  seventy  years  ago,  may 
to-day  be  qiiite  incomprehensible.  AVith  the  death  of  a 
social  custom  or  a  branch  of  industry,  for  instance,  a 
whole  set  of  words  must  become  obsolete — that  is,  go  out 
of  present  use.     In  Twelfth  Xight,  Sir  Toby  says,  "Why 


GOOD   USE  147 

dost  thou  not  go  to  church  in  a  galliard  and  come  liome 
in  a  coranto?"  The  two  dances  named  are  dead,  and  so 
the  words  also  have  died,  except  for  those  who  know 
Elizabethan  literature.  The  letter  that  Malvolio  sup- 
poses to  come  from  his  mistress,  the  Lady  Olivia,  reads, 
"Remember  who  .  .  .  wished  to  see  thee  ever  cross- 
gartered."  With  the  i^assing  of  doublet  and  hose,  the 
fashion  of  cross-gartering  went  out,  and  for  most  people 
the  word  itself  lost  all  meaning.  Nor  need  the  examples 
be  taken  from  so  distant  a  time.  Every  political  campaign 
brings  forth  words,  understood  temporarily,  but  often  com- 
pletely forgotten  before  the  next  election.  In  1899  all 
Americans  understood  "gold  bug,"  "silverite,"  and  recon- 
centrado,  but  in  ten  years  these  words  Avill  probably  be 
unintelligible  to  most  men,  except  after  an  effort  of  memory. 
AVords  that  have  changed  their  meaning  may  be  reck- 
oned as  obsolete  in  their  original  sense.  When  Falstaff 
says,  "Call  me  villain  and  bafiie  me,"  he  means,  "Call 
me  no  gentleman,  and  show  that  I  am  a  recreant  knight 
by  hanging  my  picture  upside  down."  "Villain"  and 
"baffle"  are  still  English  words,  but  they  do  not  mean  to 
us  what  they  did  to  Falstaff.     When  Hamlet  says. 

By  Heaven,  I'll  make  a  ghost  of  him  that  lets  me, 

he  uses  "let"  in  the  sense  of  "hinder,"  a  sense  now  van- 
ished except  in  the  game  of  tennis.  "Invite"  as  a  noun 
was  once  accepted,  bub  is  so  no  longer.  "Leasing"  in 
the  sense  of  "lying"  is  a  fourth  example. 

To  lay  down  precise  limits  for  present  use  is  impossible. 
Perhaps  it  will  be  enough  to  say  that  the  style  of  writers 
whose  works  appeared  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  cen- 
tury ago  is  not  a  safe  guide  in  doubtful  cases,  and  further, 
that  in  poetry  and  certain  kinds  of  highly  imaginative 
prose  words  may  be  living  which  in  ordinary  prose  arc 
dead.     For  example,  the  use  of  "peradventure"  for  "per- 


148  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

haps,"  "babe"  for  "baby,"  "spake"  for  "spoke,"  and 
"  'tis"  for  "it  is,"  admissible  in  verse,  is  in  ordinary  prose 
a  mere  affectation. 

62.  National  Use. — AVhen  a  writer  means  to  be  intel- 
ligible to  people  at  large,  he  will  do  well  to  avoid  terms 
which  are  nsed  exclnsively  by  one  class  or  locality:  he 
mnst,  usually,  shun  localisms,  technical  words,  foreign 
words,  and  words  which  are  exclnsively  British  or  Ameri- 
can.    Each  of  these  classes  is  treated  separately  below. 

1.  Localisms. — Every  section  of  the  country  has  local 
expressions — called  localisms — so  widely  nsed  within  that 
section  that  to  the  unwary  they  seem  national.  In  Xew 
Orleans,  for  example,  "banquette"  means  "sidewalk," 
and  "galerie"  is  used  for  "veranda."  "Rock,"  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  means  "stone,"  small  or  large,  and 
"clever"  means  "amiable"  or  "kind."  "Forehanded" 
is  a  curious  New  England  word  for  "well-to-do."  "Blind 
pig"  is  Chicago  slang  for  an  illicit  saloon.  Xor  are  such 
special  usages  confined  to  the  illiterate;  slang  and  local- 
isms are  jjeculiarly  rife  in  schools  and  colleges.  "Flunk," 
"cut,"  and  "footless"  ("incompetent")  are  some  of  the 
commoner  college  words.  In  America,  dialects  are  not  so 
nearly  distinct  languages  as  in  England;  but  it  is  still 
certain  that  the  man  who  knows  only  the  dialect  of  \qy- 
mont  will  not  completely  understand  the  man  who  us':^s 
the  dialect  of  North  Carolina,  and  vice  versa.  It  would, 
perhaps,  be  pedantic  to  insist  on  the  complete  exclusion 
of  localisms  from  the  care-free  conversation  of  a  country 
town  or  a  college  room,  but  all  serious  writing,  with  the 
possil)le  exception  of  narratives  whicli  aim  at  "local 
color,"  must  avoid  localisms.  \n  writing,  localisms  must 
make  way  for  words  which  are  national — that  is,  used 
throughout  the  country.  "Flunk"  must  give  place  to 
''fail,"  "cut"  to  "stay  away  from,"  uwd  "blind  pig"  to 
"unlicensed  saloon." 


GOOD    USE  l-iO 

2.  Technical  Words. — Words  may  come  short  of  being 
national,  even  if  used  throughout  the  United  States  or 
England.  It  has  often  been  noted  by  students  of  lan- 
guage^ that  an  educated  man  has  three  "layers"  in  his 
vocabulary — the  familiar  words  used  in  everyday  conversa- 
tion, the  words  drawn  from  his  trade  or  profession,  and 
the  words  he  uses  in  writing  or  very  formal  speech. 
Except  where  a  man's  profession  is  centuries  old  and  in 
part  known  to  all  men — for  example,  fishing  and  farming — 
almost  none  of  the  words  drawn  from  this  second  source 
are  understood  outside  the  professional  ranks.  Let  us 
take  an  example  from  a  text-book  on  geology : 

The  formation  of  monoclinal  folds  is  sometimes  well-illus- 
trated by  the  crenulations  of  a  lava  bed  in  which  there  was 
differential  flow  down  a  slope,  the  upper  layers  moving  faster 
than  the  lower.  Monoclinal  folds  thus  formed  are  not  large. 
The  directing  force  was  gravity,  and  the  axial  planes  dip  toward 
tlie  force.     The  crenulations  are  therefore  over-thrust  folds. 

To  none  but  a  geologist  does  such  a  passage  convey  its 
precise  meaning.  A  doctor  or  a  lawyer,  for  instance, 
would  probably  get  little  out  of  it.  But,  as  the  following 
extract  shows,  the  lawyer's  technical  words  will  mean 
little  to  the  doctor  or  the  geologist : 

A  remainder  is  contingent  when  it  is  so  limited  as  to  take 
effect  to  a  person  not  in  esse,  or  not  ascertained,  or  upon  an 
event  which  may  never  happen  or  may  not  hajjpen  until  after 
the  determination  of  the  particular  estate.  Three  cases  are 
cited.  In  each  of  these  cases  it  will  be  observed  that  whether 
or  not  the  remainder  will  ever  take  effect  in  possession  depends 
upon  the  concurrence  of  a  collateral  contingency  irrespective 
of  its  own  duration. 

Contrast  with  the  foregoing  extracts  the  following  one 
from  Huxley: 

Let  us  consider  the  olfactory  sense  organ  more  nearly.  Each 
of  the  nostrils  leads  into  a  passage  completely  separated  from  the 
other  by  a  partition,  and  these  two  passages  place  the  nostrils  in 

1  See,  for  instance,  Emerson's  History  of  the  English  Language,  p.  115. 


150  COMPOSITION   AND    EHETORIC 

free  communication  with  the  back  of  the  throat,  so  that  they 
freely  transmit  the  air  passing  to  the  lungs  when  the  mouth  is 
shut,  as  in  ordinary  breathing.  The  floor  of  each  passage  is 
flat,  but  its  roof  is  a  high  arch,  the  crown  of  which  is  seated 
between  the  orbital  cavities  of  the  skull,  which  serve  for  the 
lodgment  and  protection  of  the  eyes ;  and  it  therefore  lies  behind 
the  apparent  limits  of  that  feature  which,  in  ordinary  language, 
is  called  the  nose.  From  the  side  walls  of  the  upper  and  back 
])art  of  these  arched  chambers  certain  delicate  plates  of  bone 
project,  and  these,  as  well  as  a  considerable  part  of  tlie  partition 
between  the  two  chambers,  are  covered  by  a  fine,  soft,  moist 
membrane. — Huxley:  Sensation  and  the  Sensiferous  Organs. 

If  Huxley  had  been  addressing  an  audience  of  pliysiolo- 
gists,  the  passage  would  probably  have  bristled  with  tech- 
nical terms,  because  the  technical  term  is  usually  the 
shortest  and  most  exact  way  of  expressing  a  technical 
l)oint.  But  Huxley  Avas  not  speaking  to  physiologists,  and 
he  properly  avoided  all  technical  terms  the  meaning  of 
which  could  not  be  easily  gathered  from  the  context. 
His  practice  here  should  always  be  followed  in  writing 
meant  for  the  general  public. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  tech- 
nical terms  are  in  all  cases  permanently  under  the  ban  of 
good  use.  The  matter  is  summed  up  extremely  well  in 
the  following  paragraph:     • 

The  position  of  technical  dialects  or  jargons  with  respect  to 
our  language  is  this:  so  long  as  the  terms  in  question  are  used  in 
technical  discussions  only,  they  scarcely  belong  to  the  English 
vocabulary  at  all.  If  they  wander  out  of  their  narrow  circle 
and  are  occasionally  heard  in  current  speech,  they  become  a 
]iart  of  our  vocabulary,  though  they  are  still  a  very  special  or 
technical  part  of  it.  But  the  process  may  go  much  farther:  the 
objects  or  conceptions  for  which  the  terms  stand  may  become 
very  common,  or  the  words  may  lose  their  strictly  scientific 
sense  and  be  api)lied  vaguely  or  metapliorically.  Wlien  this 
happens,  the  word  has  become  fully  naturalized,  and  its  tech- 
nical origin  is  prettj'  sure  to  be  forgotten  in  the  long  run. — 
Greexough  .VXD  KiTTREDGE:  Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English 
Speech. 


GOOD    USE  151 

3.  Foreign  Words. — English  has  grcwn  largely  by  the 
adoption  of  foreign  words — so  largely  that  our  diction- 
aries contain  more  words  of  foreign  than  of  native  origin. 
Whenever  a  foreign  word  supplies  a  real  need,  it  may  be 
trusted  to  establish  itself  in  the  language.  Very  often 
such  a  word  takes  on  an  English  form,  and  we  forget  its 
foreign  origin:  "preface,"  for  instance,  is  at  present  a 
more  natural  word  than  its  native  equivalent,  "foreword." 
Often  foreign  words  retain  their  native  form,  but  work 
themselves  into  our  speech  so  completely  that  we  never 
think  of  them  as  foreign  words  and  no  longer  italicize 
them:  the  naturalization  of  "naive"  and  "bureau,"  for 
example,  is  complete.  Sometimes  we  keep  two  parallel 
forms,  one  English,  the  other  foreign;  e.  g.,  "and  so 
forth,"  et  cetera;  "in  the  year  of  our  Lord,"  anno  Domini. 
Finally,  some  foreign  words  though  obviously  un-English 
are  so  necessary  that  we  use  them,  even  though  the  italics 
still  call  attention  to  their  French  or  Latin  source. 
Such  are  a  priori,  a  jjosferiori,  sine  die,  sine  qua  non, 
obiter  dictum.,  per  se,  ad  capta)idum,  coup  d''etat.  But  the 
practice  of  using  foreign  words  often  goes  beyond  the 
bounds  of  good  taste.  French  in  particular  is  largely 
drawn  on.  The  second-rate  novelist  and  the  society 
reporter,  not  content  with  "betAveen  ourselves"  and  "sea- 
sickness," write  entre  nous  and  mal  de  mer;  their  women 
are  chic,  have  coiffures  a  7'avir,  and  doux  yeuo:.  This  is  a 
silly  affectation  of  the  vulgar  and  half-educated.  The 
great  mass  of  English  readers  do  not  understand  such 
words,  and  would  probably  agree  with  Mark  Twain  that  if 
Mr.  Harris,  his  traveling  companion,  Avas  free  to  lard  his 
writing  with  French  and  German  and  Italian,  TAvain  him- 
self might  with  propriety  use  Choctaw.^  The  safe  rule  is 
to  use  no  newly  imported  foreign  term  for  which  a  good 
English  equivalent  can  be  found.    And  the  cases  where 

MiirH  Twain-  Innocents  Abroad 


152  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

such  an  equivalent  can  nob  be  found  are  rare.  Macaulay 
told  the  editor  of  the  Edlnhurgh  Review  that  they  would 
have  no  quarrel  on  the  score  of  diction,  since  the  English 
language  was  large  enough  to  hold  all  he  had  to  say.^ 

4.  Anierlcanisms  and  Anglicisms. — Certain  forms  of 
expression  are  to  their  detriment  branded  as  Anglicisms 
or  Americanisms,  and  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic  there 
is  an  absurd  sort  of  "patriotism"  which  consists  in  sneer- 
ing at  the  usage  of  the  other  nation.  The  Englishman 
laughs  at  Americans  for  using  "bright"  for  "intelligent," 
and  for  making  "sick"  a  synonym  of  "ill";  the  Ameri- 
can is  likely  to  stare  at  hearing  that  "The  lady's  body  will 
be  sent  home  in  a  box,"  until  he  learns  that  in  England 
"body"  often  means  "dress-waist."  Clearly,  we  must 
ask  ourselves  the  questions:  "Is  American  usage  national 
usage?  Must  avc  avoid  every  Americanism,  or  may  we 
accept  any  or  all  of  them?"  ^ 

Differences  between  British  and  American  English 
there  must  be.  Distance  and  different  conditions  could 
not  leave  the  language  of  the  two  nations  always  the  same. 
Xot  unnaturally,  some  words  used  in  England  are 
unknown  to  us,  1)ecause  the  things  they  name  do 
not  exist  here;  for  the  same  reason  some  words 
common  in  America  do  not  appear  at  all  in  England. 
Englishmen  do  not  speak  of  "prairies,"  "statehouses," 
and  "lobbyists";  Americans  do  not  speak  of  "hustings," 
"beadlesj"  and  "mummers. "    For  the  com])aratively  small 


'  A  rii^id  observance  of  the  printer's  rule  that  foreign  words  should  bo 
italicized  will  serve  to  call  a  writer's  attention  to  such  foreign  words  as  he 
uses  and  will  probably  decrease  their  number. 

"  For  somewhat  over-patriotic  accounts  of  the  independence  of  American 
l^uglish,  see  H.  C.  Lodge,  "Shakspere's  Americanisms,"  Harper's  Monthly, 
\'q\.  XC,  No.  ij30;  and  Professor  Brander  Matthews's  Parts  of  Speech, 
Chapters  IIT-V.  Mr.  Matthews  rightly  points  out  that  the  Knglishman  is 
loo  prone  to  regard  the  slip  of  a  single  American— for  instance,  Mr.  Edison's 
<•  )i!iage  of  the  word  "  indorsation"— as  an  Americanism,  but  that  he  objects 
to  having  the  same  rule  applied  to  the  mistakes  of  Englishmen.  For  the 
Englishman's  side  of  the  case,  see  Muirhead's  Land  of  Contrasts. 


GOOD    USE  153 

number  of  words  belonging  to  this  class,  it*  would  seem 
that  either  England  or  America  may  regard  its  own  use 
as  national.  The  same  rale  holds  for  an  even  more 
limited  class  of  words  in  which  there  are  equivalent  forms, 
one  in  good  use  in  England,  one  in  America.  Such 
words  are  "perambulator"  for  "baby  carriage,"  "shunt" 
for  "switch,"  "lift"  for  "elevator,"  "terminus"  for 
"station,"  "leader"  for  "editorial"  "We  can  not  con- 
demn the  English  use ;  nor  can  the  Englishman  condemn 
our  use.  It  is  of  just  such  differences  that  Freeman 
wrote : 

A  good  British  writer  and  a  good  American  writer  will  write 
in  the  same  language  and  the  same  dialect ;  but  it  is  well  that 
each  should  keep  to  those  little  peculiarities  of  established  and 
reasonable  local  usage  which  will  show  on  which  side  of  the 
ocean  he  writes.' 

Some  additional  words  of  the  class  in  which  each  nation 
properly  sticks  to  its  own  usage  are  given  in  the  following 

list : 

British  American 

haberdasher  men's  furnisher 

chemist  druggist 

engine-driver  engineer 

stoker  fireman 

antimacassar  tidy 

reel  of  cotton  spool  of  thread 

tart  pie 

carriage  (railwaj')  car 

railway  railroad 

guard  conductor 

booking-clerk  ticket  agent 

luggage- van  baggage  car 

form  bench 

jug  pitcher 

farrier  blacksmith 

chest  of  drawers  bureau 

ill  sick 

goods-train  freight-train 


>  Quoted  by  Professor  A.  S.  HiU  in  The  Principles  of  Rhetoric. 


154  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETOEIC 

But  the  discussion  so  far  has  hardly  touched  the  vital 
point.  The  differences  which  have  been  noted  are  small, 
and  in  some  cases  are  disappearing.  England  borrows 
from  Ameiica,  and  America  from  England.  "Chest  of 
drawers,"  for  instance,  is  driving  out  "bureau"  in 
America.  Moreover,  since  we  speak,  not  the  American 
but  the  English  language,  the  great  mass  of  our  words, 
phrases,  and  constructions  must  inevitably  be  the  same  as 
those  used  in  England.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  a 
word  is  not  in  national  use  unless  it  is  used  widely  by  the 
best  writers  and  speakers  in  both  England  and  America. 
The  real  danger,  for  both  Americaus  and  Englishmen,  is 
not  in  using  those  words  approved  by  "established  and 
reasonable  local  usage, "  but  in  employing  those  Anglicisms 
or  Americanisms  which  have  really  never  received  the 
support  of  good  British  or  American  writers.  The  reason 
that  a  careful  American  writer,  speaking  in  his  own  per- 
son, will  not  say  "pants"  for  "trousers";  "vest"  for 
"waistcoat";  "reckon,"  "calculate,"  and  "guess"  for 
"think";  "right  hard";  "smart,"  and  "brainy"  for 
"clever";  "folks"  for  "family"  ;  and  "fix"  for  "repair," 
is  not  that  they  arc  not  used  in  England,  but  that  they 
are  not  used  by  the  best  American  writers.  If  an  Ameri- 
can is  in  doubt  about  a  word,  he  need  nob  forego  its  use 
because  it  is  not  found  in  the  pages  of  Thackeray  or  Rus- 
kin,  but  he  should  abandon  it  if  it  is  not  in  the  writings 
of  the  reputable  American  authors  of  his  own  day. 
American  bad  use  differs  widely  from  English  bad  use; 
American  and  English  good  use  are  almost,  though  not 
quite,  identical. 

63.  Reputable  Use. — The  reason  for  rejecting  the  vast 
majority  of  so-called  Americanisms  is  that  they  do  not 
satisfy  the  third  requirement  of  good  use — they  are  not 
reputable.  A  Avord  may  bo  l)oth  present  and  national, 
but  if  it  is  not  reputable— that  is,  used  by  many  of  the 


GOOD    USE  155 

best  writers  and  speakers — it  is  not  in  good  use.  This 
law  applies  to  "ain't,"  which  has  been  used  for  years;  to 
the  recently  coined  verbs  to  "boulevard"  and  to  "con- 
certize";  to  "underhanded"  for  "underhand";  and  to 
all  the  numerous  misuses  of  good  English  words,  such  as 
"lay"  for  "lie,"  "can"  for  "may,"  and  "love"  for 
"like."  It  applies  also  to  words  used  only  by  a  few  good 
authors  here  and  there.  Carlyle,  for  instance,  invented 
the  compound  "careful -hopeful,"  and  might  well  have 
said  "right-angle-ism."  A  word,  however,  is  not  in  good 
use  unless  it  is  used,not  only  by  Carlyle,  but  also  by  many 
more  good  writers  of  to-day.  Reputable  words,  then,  are 
those  national  and  present  words  which  are  used  l)y  the 
best  speakers  and  wi'iters. 

"With  words  which  liave  had  a  long  history,  a  decision 
is  easily  made:  they  have  already  been  either  accepted  or 
rejected.  We  can  learn  the  standing  of  "ain't"  by  a  refer- 
ence to  any  good  dictionary.  AVith  new  words  the  task  is 
more  difficult.  New  coniages  are  necessary  when  new 
facts  or  ideas  appear.  Here,  the  dictionary  is  of  no 
avail,  because  it  can  register  only  the  Avords  which  exist 
when  it  is  printed.^  AVhen  the  need  is  unmistakable  and 
the  word  is  properly  formed ,  the  mere  fact  that  it  is  not 
in  the  dictionary  should  not  make  us  hesitate.  He  would 
be  a  narrow  pedant  who  had  objected  to  "cable-car," 
"telephone,"  "telegram."  But  often  words  appear  only 
to  give  way  to  later  and  better  forms.  For  instance, 
Fitzedward  Hall's  "literarian"  is  dead,  "motorneer"  has 
given  way  to  "motorman,"  and  "electricute"  (not  in 
itself  a  perfect  form)  may  some  day  displace  the  igno- 


"  The  dictionary,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  aims  to  give  a  oomplele  account 
of  the  vocabulary  of  a  language.  It  therefore  Includes  many  words  which 
are  not  used  to-day,  and  many  words  which  are  not  used  by  careful  speakers 
or  writers.  The  student  should  learn  that  even  good  modern  dictionaries 
such  as  the  New  English  Dictionary,  the  Century,  and  the  Standard,  can  not 
always  be  relied  on  to  settle  a  point  of  diction.    See  section  33, 


156  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

rantly-formed  "electrocute."  "Eeportorial,"'  formed  on 
the  analogy  of  "editorial,"  as  if  the  noun  were  ^'reportor,^^ 
has  a  fighting  chance,  hut  is  still  a  good  word  to  avoid. 
Again,  words  often  appear  which  time  proves  unnecessary. 
When  a  nation  is  stirred  by  some  great  event,  numberless 
ncAV  words,  some  coined,  some  borrowed,  spring  up.  The 
Spanish-American  war,  the  conflict  in  the  Philippines, 
and  the  South  African  war,  brought  many  new  words  into 
prominence — reconcentrados,  bolo-men,  kopje,  commandeer, 
trek,  inspan,  oiifspan,  veldt,  laager.  If  English  possesses 
no  exact  equivalent  for  a  new  term,  and  the  thing  named 
continues  to  be  important,  the  word  is  accepted;  other- 
Avise  it  dies.  While  words  are  on  ttial,  the  untrained 
writer  will  do  well  to  follow  the  usage  of  the  approved 
writers.*  If  they  accept  the  words,  anyone  may  use  them 
without  fear.  If  they  do  not,  then  the  words  should  be 
shunned  for  the  time  being. 

Ultimately,  however,  the  veto-power  of  the  nation  at 
large  may  reject  the  decision  of  the  men  of  letters. 
Whether  the  grounds  of  rejection  are  good  or  bad  matters 
not.  Good  use  is,  after  all,  illogical  and  arbitrary;  as 
Montaigne  said,  "He  who  would  fight  custom  with  gram- 
mar is  a  fool." 

64.  How  to  Get  a  Reputable  Vocabulary. — The  vocabu- 
lary that  tlio  untrained  person  uses  when  ho  begins  to 
write  is  the  colloquial  one.  In  almost  every  case  that 
vocabular}^  has  the  virtue  of  being  lively  and  the  defect  of 
not  being  in  good  use.  The  problem  before  the  student 
of  composition  is  how  to  make  this  incorrect  but  effective 
vocabulary  over  into  one  that  is  not  only  effective  but 


>  The  interesting  question  of  who  the  WTiters  to  whom  we  must  defer  ;ire, 
can  not  be  treated  hei-e,  becaiise  the  list  of  modei'n  wTitei-s  changes  continu- 
aUy.  The  class  will  find  it  helpful  to  raa\{e  up  a  list  of  men  whose  customs  in 
raattei's  of  diction  they  must  accept.  Roughly  speaking,  we  may  follow  any 
writer  whose  work  is  likely  to  endure,  but  not  a  boy's  story  paper,  a  news, 
paper,  or  the  ordinary  magazine. 


GOOD   USE  157 

also  dignified  and  correct.  If  he  always  stops  to  think 
about  his  choice  of  words  as  he  writes,  his  style  will 
become  dry  and  hard;  he  will  acquire  correctness  by 
becoming  dull.  The  remedy  for  incorrectness  must  be 
sought  in  other  ways.  A  little  care  in  speaking  will  do 
much,  but  to  make  that  care  profitable  the  student  must 
knoAV  what  is  wrong.  In  the  next  few  chapters  some  of  the 
more  striking  cases  of  bad  English  are  pointed  out.  A 
careful  study  of  these  chapters  will  serve  to  show  the 
student  some  of  his  own  bad  companions,  and  to  put 
him  on  the  alert  generally  for  bad  English.  But 
unless  the  student  gets  into  good  literary  company 
by  reading  good  literature,  this  study  of  errors  will  have 
little  effect.  Indeed,  no  course  in  rhetoric  can  make 
much  impression  on  one  who  never  reads,  while  for  one 
who  reads  widely  and  intently,  such  a  course  is  as  often  as 
not  needless. 

Exercise  IX 

A .  What  is  the  purpose  of  language?  How  do  words 
acquire  meaning?  Why  must  the  individual  be  governed 
by  rules  in  his  speech  and  writing? 

B.  Define  good  use.  Does  it  govern  single  words  only? 
What  is  the  good  use  of  sentences  called?  Does  good 
use  settle  our  fashions  of  spelling,  jmnctuation,  and  pro- 
nunciation? 

C.  Is  the  good  use  of  conversation  identical  with  the 
good  use  of  writing?  Cite  examples.  Why  are  the  col- 
loquialisms Thackeray  uses  in  the  English  Humorists 
appropriate  there,  when  they  would  not  be  appropriate  in 
such  an  essay  as  Macaulay's  Milton? 

D.  Is  good  use  made  by  the  habit  of  the  nation  at  large 
or  by  some  select  body?  In  doubtful  cases  to  whom,  if  to 
any,  should  the  American  people  defer?      Can  you  think 


158  COMPOSITION"   AND   RHETORIC 

of  any  words  which,  though  widely  used,  are  not  in  good 
use?  Cite  cases  in  which  the  pubhc  habit  has  overcome 
the  possibly  better  taste  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers. 

E.  What  is  the  relation  of  a  text-book  of  rhetoric  to 
good  use?  Of  a  dictionary?  May  any  one  dictionary  be 
accepted  as  final?  What  dictionaries  are  fairly  safe 
guides?  Why  is  Johnson's  dictionary  not  an  authority 
for  us?  Is  a  newspaper  a  safe  guide  in  disputed  cases? 
A  boy's  story  paper?     The  Century  Magazine? 

F.  W^hat  are  the  three  requirements  of  good  use? 

G.  Why  must  language  change?  What  causes  tend  to 
make  a  language  stable?  Has  writing  a  tendency  to  fix 
language?  What  great  invention  has  helped  to  fix  lan- 
guage? Why  do  you  suppose  dialects  differ  so  markedly 
in  England  and  so  little  in  America? 

H.  Define  present  use. 

/.  Below  are  some  of  the  words  and  phrases  which  Wil- 
liam Cullen  Bryant  refused  to  allow  in  the  pages  of  the 
Neiu  York  Evening  Post.  How  many  of  these  words  and 
phrases  are  now  in  good  use?  Do  you  discover,  from 
your  investigation  of  this  list,  any  proof  of  the  statement 
that  the  boundaries  of  present  use  are  hard  to  estab- 
lish? 

artiste  (for  "artist")  deinocracy  (applied  to  a  jtolit- 
asi)irant  i(;al  party) 

authoress  develop  (for  "expose"") 

bagging  (for  "capturing"")  devouring  element  (for  "fire"') 

banquet  (for  "dinner""  or  "sup-  donate 

per"")  employe 

bogus  endorse  (for  "approve") 

casket  (for  "coftm"")  enroute 

cotemporary    (for    "contempo-  graduate  (for  "is  graduated") 

rary'")  gents  (for  "gentlemen"") 

day  before  yesterday  (for  "the  humbug 

day  before  yesterday"')  in  our  midst 

debut  item  (for  "article,"'  "extract," 
decease  (as  a  verb)  or  "paragraph"") 


GOOD   USE 


159 


jeopardize 

jubilant  (for  "rejoicing") 

juvenile  (for  "boy") 

lady  (for  "wife") 

lengthy  (for  "long") 

leniency  (for  "lenity") 

loafer 

Mrs.  President,  Mrs.  Governor, 
Mrs.  General  (and  all  i.:m- 
ilar  titles) 

official  (for  "officer") 

on  yesterday 

ovation 

over  his  signature 

pants  (for  "pantaloons") 

pai-tially  (for  "partly") 

past  two  weeks  (for  "last  two 
weeks,"  and  all  similar  ex- 
pressions relating  to  a  defi- 
nite time) 

poetess 


progress  (for  "advance") 
raid  (for  "attack") 
realized  (for  "obtained") 
reliable  (for  "trustworthy") 
repudiate  (for  "reject"  or  "dis- 
own") 
retire  (as  an  active  verb) 
Rev.  (for  "the  Rev.") 
role  (for  "j)art") 
roughs 
rowdies 
sensation     (for     "noteworthy 

event") 
standpoint      (for      "point     of 

view") 
state  (for  "say") 
the  deceased 

via  (for  "by  the  way  of") 
vicinity  (for  "neighborhood") 
wharves  (for  "wharfs") 
would  seem  (for  "seems") 


J.  What  obsolete  words  are  sometimes  used  affectedly 
in  prose? 

K.  Eead  a  chapter  in  the  King  James  version  of  the 
Bible,  and  select  the  obsolete  words. 

L.  Point  out  the  localisms  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  The  colored  woman  said  that  her  daughter  was  feeling 
puny  to-day. 

2.  As  it  was  raining  hard,  he  took  both  his  gums  and  his 
umbrella. 

3.  The  little  girl  knocked  at  the  door,  saying  that  she  wanted 
in. 

4.  They  fried  the  eggs  in  a  spider. 

5.  The  man  raised  garden  truck. 

6.  Where  have  you  been  to? 

7.  She  said  that  she  allowed  they  were  sick. 

8.  Her  mother  had  raised  her  carefully. 

9.  She  slapped  the  lines  over  the  horse's  back,  in  the  deplor- 
able fashion  of  her  sex. 


160  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

10.  She  reproached  her  brother  with  his  tardiness,  saying  that 
she  had  waited  on  him  nearly  an  hour. 

11.  The  children  blamed  it  on  each  other. 

12.  He  did  not  like  boughten  pies,  and  said  so. 

13.  He  said  he  reckoned  that  the  man  was  not  looking  for 
trouble. 

3f.  Which  of  these  extracts  seems  to  you  to  employ  a 
vocabulary  in  good  use?  Why  are  the  words  in  the  other 
extracts  not  in  good  use? 

1.  The  Melbourne  foursome  contest  was  started  immediately 
after  lunch.  The  favorites  drove  splendidly  and  putted  femark- 
abl}^  but  their  net  score  of  93  was  not  sufficient  to  win. 

2.  Wheat  was  a  heavy  liquidating  market  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  session  yesterday.  The  local  sentiment  was  decid- 
edly bearish,  and  considerations  wliich  might  have  been  given  a 
bullish  construction  were  ignored. 

3.  The  illustration  represents  a  dress  of  mauve  Cliina  crepe  by 
Mirecour.  It  is  cut  in  the  Princesse  style  and  trimmed  with 
guipure.  The  corsage  is  made  with  a  fichu  of  crepe,  draped  over 
violet-frilled  taflfeta. 

4.  In  heterogeneous  rock  strata  in  this  middle  zone  of  flowage 
and  fracture,  irregular  fracturing,  brecciation,  jointing,  faulting, 
folding,  and  the  development  of  secondary  structure  may  occur 
in  a  most  complex  manner.  A  deeply  buried  brittle  formation 
may  be  xmder  such  stress  that  as  a  whole  it  folds  without  major 
fracturing,  but  in  a  minor  way  it  may  be  faulted,  fractured,  or 
brecciated. 

r».  At  fir.st  it  may  seem  almost  incredible  that  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  land,  even  the  loftiest  and  stateliest  mountains, 
should  thus  be  crumbling  down.  But  the  more  we  search  for 
[1  roofs  of  the  assertion,  the  more  clear  and  abundant  do  they 
l)ecome.  "We  learn  that,  wuatever  may  have  been  the  aspect  of 
tlie  land  when  first  pushed  out  of  the  sea,  it  has  been,  and  is 
now  being  chiselled  from  its  highest  peaks  down  to  below  the 
tide-marks.  Its  cliffs  and  pinnacles  are  split  up  and  grow  more 
sliattered  and  sharji  every  year.  Its  ravines  are  widciKMl  and 
deepened.  Its  hilly  surfaces  become  more  roughened  and  more 
deeply  seamed  by  the  lines  which  running  water  traces  over 
tliem.  Its  valleys  and  plains  are  levelled  .and  strewn  with 
debris  washed  down  from  highe'r  grounds. — Geikie:  Pliysical 
Qeographij. 


GOOD    USE  IGl 

TV.  Can  you  mention  some  technical  phrases  which 
either  have  come  or  are  likely  to  come  into  good  use? 

0.  Why  is  the  use  of  a  large  number  of  foreign  words 
objectionable?  When  may  we  legitimately  use  foreign 
words? 

P.  Write  a  paragraph  giving  your  own  opinion  on  the 
subject  of  British  and  American  usage.  Is  "to  clerk"  a 
good  Amei'ican  usage  or  not?  Is  "vest"  for  "waistcoat" 
a  good  American  usage?  Point  out  the  Anglicisms  in  the 
following  advertisement : 

The  company  has  been  formed  to  acquire  as  a  going  concern 
the  old,  established  business  of  R.  H.  and  S.  Rogers,  the  well- 
known  shirt  and  collar  warehousemen  and  manufacturers,  of 
9,  10,  and  11  Addle-street,  London,  with  factories  at  Rother- 
hithe,  and  at  Coleraine,  Ireland. 

The  accounts  of  the  firm  have  been  supervised  for  many  years 
past  by  Mr.  Thomas  Frid  Maunder,  and  amongst  the  satisfactory 
features  of  the  business  it  will  be  seen  from  his  certificate  that, 
while  the  turnover  has  increased  year  by  year,  the  percentage  tif 
profits  has  been  maintained  and  tlie  bad  debts  have  averaged 
less  than  a  half  per  cent  on  the  amount  of  the  turnover. 

Q.  Of  the  list  of  authors  you  made  in  answer  to  the 
second  question  under  i),  how  many  arc  American? 

R.  What  should  be  your  attitude  toward  new  words? 
May  a  great  author  allow  himself  to  make  a  new  word  or 
to  compound  words?  Why?  May  you  invent  or  employ 
such  words? 


CHAPTER    X 


BARBARISMS 


65,  Barbarisms,  or  Words  Not  English. — Every  combi- 
nation of  letters  used  by  those  wlio  speak  English  is,  per- 
haps, in  the  strictest  sense,  a  word;  thus  "chump"  is  as 
much  an  English  word  as  "fool."  But,  just  as  Cbarles 
Lamb  said  that  there  are  "books  which  are  not  books," 
the  rhetorician  may  say  that  there  are  words  which  are 
not  words,  and  that  "cliump,"  which  is  not  permissible  in 
careful  speech  or  writiug,  is  not,  so  far  as  correct  speak- 
ing and  writing  are  concerned,  a  word  at  all.  Expressions 
ivMcli  the  best  taste  in  words — tliat  is,  good  iise — rejects 
altogether, are  called  barbarisms. 

A  rejected  word  may  violate  all  three  requirements  of 
good  use,  but  a  violation  of  any  one  requirement  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  it  a  barbarism.  "Carven,"  a  word  once 
used,  but  now  obsolete;  "travelogue,"  a  new  word  not  yet 
accepted;  "pants,"  a  vulgarism;  "coeleuterata,"  a  word 
so  technical  as  not  to  be  clear  to  the  general  public;  and 
"forehanded,"  a  localism,  are  one  and  all  barbarisms. 

Barbarisms  are  most  commonly  found  in  the  speech  of 
tbe  uneducated,  and  with  the  exception  of  technical 
words  do  not  often  appear  iu  the  writing  of  any  but  the 
most  careless.  Still,  tliey  form  a  not  inconsiderable  part 
of  everyday  speech,  and  some  caution  against  them  is 
needed.  No  complete  list  of  barbarisms  is  possible,  but  if 
words  of  tlio  classes  mentioned  below  are  studiously 
shunned,  many  of  the  grosser  errors  of  speech  and  writing 
may  be  avoided.  The  pupil  should  supplement  the  lists 
by  careful  observation,  and  by  referring,  in   any  doubtful 

163 


BARBARISMS  163 

case,  to  a  good  dictionary.  However,  to  learn  these  lists, 
or  any  list  of  barbarisms,  by  heart  would  be  a  waste  of 
time;  barbarisms  are  to  be  recognized  and  avoided  rather 
than  remembered. 

66.  Obvious  Vulgarisms. — A  certain  number  of  words, 
easily  recognizable  as  barbarisms,  are  characteristic  of  the 
speech  of  uneducated  people.  Among  such  expressions 
are: 

ain't  disreniember 

in  course  (for  "of  course")  complected 

unbeknown  leaves  for  "lief"    in    "just  as 

sbarves  (for  "sbafts")  lief." 

67.  Slang. — One  of  the  most  easily  detected  of  errors  in 
diction  is  slang — temporary  and  vulgar  words  and  phrases 
that  spring  from  some  local  condition  or  quickly  forgotten 
episode.  It  plays  a  very  large  part  in  the  conversation  of 
Americans,  but  does  not  usually  appear  in  the  writing  of 
any  mature  person  except  the  newspaper  reporter.  The 
slang  word  or  phrase  may  be  altogether  new,  or  it  may  be 
merely  a  misuse  of  some  good  English  word.^ 

►  Slang  often  has  a  suggestiveness  lacking  in  reputable 
language.  Good  use,  indeed,  not  infrequently  draws 
recruits  from  slang:  "mob"  and  "banter,"  for  example, 
were  slang  in  Swift's  day.  But  slang  is  usually  vulgar  and 
transient — so  transient  that  the  cant  phrases  of  a  year 
ago  are  often  unintelligible  to-day.  How  long  shall  we 
remember  that  "a  steer"  means  a  misleading  report? 
Will  the  slang  sense  of  "Cut  it  out"  prevent  the  legiti- 
mate use  of  the  phrase  for  more  than  a  year  or  two? 
Will  "Take  a  tumble  to  yourself"  for  "Be  more  careful," 
"jag"  for  a  state  of  intoxication,  "masher"  for  a  kind  of 


1  In  other  words,  a  bit  of  slang  may  be  either  a  barbarism  or  an  impro- 
priety. (See  Chapter  XI.)  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  however,  both  liinds  of 
slang  are  treated  here. 

For  an  interesting  essay  on  slang,  see  Professor  Brander  Matthews's 
The  Parts  of  Speech,  Chapter  VIII. 


164  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

vulgar  male  flirt-,,  and  "sockdologer"  for  a  heavy  blow, 
ever  be  used  by  a  single  writer  of  repute?  Moreover,  the 
free  use  of  slang  is  a  menace  to  clear  and  accurate  diction. 
It  is  an  observed  fact  that  those  who  rely  mainly  on  slang 
can  seldom  express  themselves  accurately  when  circum- 
stances compel  them  to  use  more  formal  English. 

68.  Newspaper  Words. — Closely  allied  to  slang,  and 
quite  as  contagious,  are  the  reporter's  inventions  and 
adaptations.  Everyone  who  makes  the  newspaper  the 
staple  of  his  reading  is  in  danger  of  using  many  expres- 
sions as  improper  as  the  following: 

to  suicide^  a  scoop  )  (a  victory  in  securing 

to  concertize  a  beat    |      news  in  advance) 

to  entliuse  a  fake 

to  suspicion  a  defy 

to  excursionate  an  invite 

to  gesture  a  disappoint 

to  culture  a  combine 

to  crayonize  a  preventative  (also  the  same 
to  lotion  word  as  an  adjective) 

to  probate  a  steal 

to  railroad  storiette 

to  defalcate  playlet 

to  burglarize  booklet 
to  materialize  (in  the  sense     managerial 

of  "to  come  to  pass'')  reportorial 

Many  of  these  Avords  appear  in  the  dictionaries.  But, 
as  has  been  said  before  (section  GO),  the  dictionaries 
include  many  words  of  doubtful  standing. 

69.  Vulgarisms  Hard  to  Recognize. — The  most  danger- 
ous barl)ari.sms  are  those  words  or  phrases  so  froquently 
used  as  to  throw  us  off  our  guard,  or  so  nearly  like 
accepted  words  as  to  be  confused  with  them.  Among 
such  words  are: 


*  Some  rhetoricians  call  .such  words  improprieties.  But  when  u  noun  or 
an  adjective  i.s  made  into  a  verb,  the  result  is  really  a  new  word.  This 
applies  to  several  words  iu  this  list. 


BARBARISMS 


166 


poetess 

authoress 

folks 

proven 

underhanded 

secondhanded 

offhanded 

confliction 

humans 

70.  Abbreviations  Not  in  Good  Use. — Newspapers  and 
their  readers  frequently  use  abbreviations  condemned  by 
good  use,  such  as : 


indecided 

casuality  for  "casualty" 

manageress 

sightlier  (for  "more  sightly") 

to  restitute 

firstly 

illy 

doubtlessly 


gents  (for  "gentlemen") 
pants     (for    "pantaloons" — 
"trousers"  is  far  better) 
photo  (for  "photograph") 
co-ed  (for  "woman  student") 
'phone  (for  "telephone") 
ad  (for  "advertisement") 

71.  Foreign  Words. — The 


curios  (for  "curiosities") 
doc  (for  "doctor") 
cap  (for  "captain") 
spec  (for  "speculation") 
exam  (for  "examination") 
cute  (for  "acute") 
pard  (for  "partner") 

foreign  terms    given  below 


may  or  may  not  be  perfectly  good  words  in  their  own 
tongue,  but  in  English  they  are  barbarisms  because  they 
violate  national  usage : 


affreiix 

chic 

distingue 

affaire  clamour 

ravissante 

on  dit 

a  merveille 

a  ban  marche 


bien  d' accord 
melange 
recherche 

nom   de  plume    (for    "pseudo- 
nym") 
beau  vionde 
nuance 
invalide  (for  "invalid") 


Exercise  X 

A.  Define  the  term  barbarism.  Must  a  word  violate 
all  three  requirements  of  good  use  in  order  to  be  a  barbar- 
ism?    Where  are  barbarisms  most  often  found? 

B.  Eead  a  daily  paper  and  make  a  list  of  the  barbarisms 
you  find. 


166  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

C.  Glance  again  at  Exercise  IX,  and  decide  how  many  of 
the  words  you  condemned  are  barbarisms, 

D.  For  the  following  barbarisms  substitute  words  in 
good  use : 

enthuse  snide  casuality 

disremember  finicky  flustrated 

cute  tote  highfalutin 

E.  How  do  barbarisms  get  into  use?  How  do  they  get 
into  good  use  (i.  e.,  how  do  they  cease  to  be  barbarisms)? 

F.  Is  a  slang  word  always  a  barbarism?  Point  out  the 
barbarisms  and  the  slang  in  the  following  passages. 
AVhen  possible,  substitute  good  English  words  for  the 
barbarisms.  Are  there  any  cases  in  which  it  is  neither 
possible  nor  desirable  to  remove  the  barbarisms? 

1.  Fine  English  pantings  for  sale. 

2.  In  the  eighth  inning  Lange  singled,  Dalilen  drove  a  fierce 
bounder  to  the  fence  in  left,  but  tried  to  take  second  and  per- 
ished on  Duffy's  perfect  throw.  Stahl  stai"ted  the  eighth  for 
Boston  with  a  hit.  Lowe  fouled  and  Yeager  pump-handled  a 
hit  to  right.  Klobedanz  flew  out.  Hamilton  hit  a  liner  to  left. 
Ryan  was  in  waiting,  but  the  ball  fell  safe  in  front  of  him  and 
the  winning  score  came  in. 

3.  During  all  these  years  I  was  doctoring  with  one  doctor  and 
another,  but  was  getting  worse  instead  of  better. 

4.  The  democratic  party  has  taken  a  step  further  in  the 
financial  question  than  it  took  in  1896,  and  has,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  espoused  greenbackism. 

5.  What  is  so  gifty  as  a  piece  of  silverware  for  wedding  or 
birthday? 

6.  Several  hundred  plants  in  full  bloom  make  a  very  fine  sliow 
when  tastily  arranged. 

7.  As  a  rule,  they  accept  without  question  the  pronouncement 
of  the  party  to  which  they  belong. 

8.  Gladstone  once  said  of  Disraeli:  "He's  too  much  of  a  sar- 
cast."  Of  the  same  master  of  persiflage  an  Irish  member  said; 
"I've  no  confidence  in  him.     He  persiflies  too  much." 

9.  "His  big  head  was  down  betune  his  big  forefeet,  an'  they 
was  twisted  in  sideways  like  a  kitten's.  He  looked  the  jiicture 
8^v  innocince  an'  forlomsomeness,  an'  by  this  an'  that  his  big 


BAKBAEISMS  167 

hairy  undherlip  was  thremblin'  an"  lie  winked  his  eyes  together 
to  kape  from  cryin'.""— Kipling:  My  Lord  the  Elephant. 

10.  "Afther  that  I  was  so  well  pleased  wid  my  handicraftful- 
ness  that  I  niver  raised  fist  on  the  gyard  that  came  to  take  me 
to  Clink." — Ibid. 

11.  He  wouldn't  stand  for  it. 

12.  The  Jom-nal  plans  a  series  of  short  write-ups  on  society 
functions. 

18.  Me  and  the  rest  of  the  kids  w\iz  playin'  hookey  that  day. 

14.  These  four  persons  were,  Mr.  Foster,  the  perfectibilian ; 
Mr.  Escot,  the  deteriorationist ;  Mr.  Jenkinson,  the  .statu-quo- 
ite ;  and  the  Reverend  Doctor  Gaster.— Peacock  :  Headlong  Hall. 

lo.  This  is  a  very  yellow  journal. 

16.  The  amount  totalled  §25,000. 

17.  In  our  conduction  of  the  investigation  we  learned  much, 

18.  The  text  of  the  play  is  then  given  to  a  typist,  who  writes 
out  on  her  typewriter  a  copy  for  each  actor. 

19.  The  nervy  pickpocket  held  the  officer  at  bay  for  fully  ten 
minutes. 

20.  He  put  the  books  into  his  grip  and  went  forward  to  the 
diner. 

21.  The  maid,  to  the  great  discomposure  of  her  mistress,  said 
that  the  butter  was  all  out. 

22.  Our  awareness  grows,  taking  in  new  signs  of  the  power 
within  us  and  without.— "Editor's  Study,"  Harper's  Monthly, 
March,  1902. 

23.  The  detectives  bagged  their  man. 

24.  When  asked  how  old  she  was,  she  said  she  disremembered. 

25.  This  well-known  authoress  was  a  poetess  as  well  as  a 
prosist. 

26.  After  a  short  walk,  they  found  a  gent's  furnishing  store. 

27.  His  broad  cloak  balloons  as  he  walks,  splendidly  purple. — 
Vance  Thompson. 

28.  He  says  he  won't  peach  on  his  pals. 

29.  Vituperous  abuse  is  a  very  poor  argument. 

30.  Humans  resemble  red-deer  in  some  respects. — KiPLING. 
TJie  Solid  Muldoon. 


CHAPTER    XI 


IMPROPRIETIES 


72.  Improprieties  Defined. — A  writer  may  use  none  but 
English  words,  and  yet  not  write  English.  Mrs.  Mala- 
prop  with  her  "allegory  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,"  and  the 
woman  Avho  said  that  a  sculptor  was  making  "a  bust  of 
her  daughter's  hand,"  and  that  a  certain  actor  "appeared 
in  the  garbage  of  a  monk,"  were  speaking,  not  English, 
but  a  language  of  their  own.  The  technical  name  for 
such  errors  is  "improprieties."  An  mi^roprlety  is  the  use 
of  an  English  word  in  a  sense  not  English. 

Improprieties  may  result  from  carelessness,  as  in 
the  use  of  "  alone"  for  "  only,"  and  "mad"  for 
"angry,"  or  from  a  desire  to  use  big  words  Avhich 
the  writer  does  not  fully  understand,  as  in  the  use 
of  "aggravate"  for  "provoke."  Improprieties  are 
the  most  common  and  the  most  harmful  errors  in  the 
use  of  words;  they  rob  the  language  of  definiteness, 
thereby  producing  obscurity.  When  "quite,"  for 
instance,  was  used  only  in  its  proper  meaning  of 
"entirely,"  it  was  always  clear.  But  since  it  has  come  to 
be  used  nearly  as  often  for  "very"  and  "almost,"  it  has 
become  aml)iguous;  now,  "I  am  quite  well"  leaves  it 
doubtful  whether  the  meaning  is  "I'm  pretty  avcH"  or 
' '  I  am  entirely  recovered. ' '  The  same  degree  of  ambiguity 
occurs  with  "fix,"  which  means  properly  "to  establish"; 
with  "transpire,"  wliicli  means  "to  become  known";  and 
with  "mad,"  wliicli  means  "crazy."  To  free  our  own 
style  from  this  dhsfui-ity  we  must  practise  a  vigilance  that 
will  at  first  make  us  very  stiff  and  uncomfortable  in 
s^eei-h   iiiid    in    wiiting.      Yet,   if  we  persevere  in  look- 


IMPROPRIETIES  169 

ing  up  ill  a  good  dictionary  every  word  about  which  we 
are  doubtful,  we  shall  finally  arrive  at  the  happiness  of 
being  able  to  talk  and  write  at  least  correctly. 

73.  "Shall"   and   "will,"    "should"   and   "would."— 

One  class  of  improprieties  needs  special  mention— the 
misuses  of  "shall"  and  "will,"  "should"  and  "would." 
It  is  commonly  said  that  to  use  "will"  for  "shall,"  or 
"would"  for  "should"  is  a  mistake  in  grammar.  It  u 
further  said  that  the  future  indicative  is : 

I  shall  we  shall 

j'ou  will  you  will 

he  will  they  will 

and  that  the  future  conditional  is: 

I  should  we  should 

you  would  you  would 

he  would  they  would 

But  correct  uses  of  "shall"  in  the  future  indicative  second 
and  third  persons  are  easily  to  be  found ;  e.g.: 

I  i^rophesy  that  in  ten  years  you  shall  find  no  vestige  of  the 
error  remaining. 

Let  a  man  go  there  in  the  dead  of  winter  and  he  shall  still 
find  feathered  folk  in  plenty. 

Moreover,  "It  shall  stop"  is  as  grammatical  as  "It  will 
■stop";  the  difference  is  one  of  meaning  only,  and  the  use 
of  the  one  verb  for  the  other  is  an  impropriety. 

To  clear  the  matter  up,  some  examination  of  the  history 
of  the  two  Avords  is  necessary.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  "shall" 
and  "will"  had  no  connection  whatever.  "Shall"  meant 
"owe,"  "be  obliged  to."  "Will"  meant  "want  to," 
"wish  to."  Though  these  earlier  meanings  have  changed 
in  some  degree,  "shall"  and  "will"  are  still  two  distinct 
verbs.  "Will,"  indeed,  still  keeps  its  primitive  meaning 
of  "desire,"  and  "I  will"  means  "I  wish  to."  "He  'ici/l 
do  it,  whether  or  no"  shows  clearly  the  amount  of  volition 
contained  in  "will."     So  does  "avIH"  when  it  is  a  prin- 


170  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

cipal  verb,  as  in,  "lie  wills  this,  not  that."  "Shall"  has 
weakened  until  it  is  no  longer  a  principal  or  independent 
verb,  ])ut  merely  a  tense-sign,  meaning  "This  is  going  to 
happen."  The  same  distinction  holds  for  "should," 
originally  the  past  tense  of  "shall,"  and  "would,"  orig- 
inally the  past  tense  of  "will." 

We  must  now  consider  the  several  cases  which  present 
difticiilties  in  the  use  of  these  words. 

74.  "Shall"  and  "will."— 1.  ''ShalF'  and  "^r///"  in 
Simple  Indicative  Sentences. — Since  "shall"  is  the  sign  of 
a  future  fact,  its  use  implies  foreknowledge  or  command. 
"I  shall  stop,"  "You  shall  go,"  "It  shiill  not  be,"  are 
all  correct  jirovidcd  the  speaker  wishes  to  speak  in  all 
three  cases  as  one  in  authority.  But  to  speak  as  one  in 
authority  in  second  or  third  person  sentences  is  not 
always  polite  or  sensible.  "You  shall  stop"  is  rude;  "It 
shall  rain"  is  nonsense.  Convention  and  common-sense, 
then,  combine  to  force  upon  us,  in  most  instances,  the 
use,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  of  the  weaker  auxil- 
iary, "will."  But  "will,"  which  is  the  weaker  auxiliary 
in  the  second  and  third  persons,  is  the  stronger  in  the 
first,  for  there  it  shows  volition  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker;  e.  g.,  "I  will  not  stop,  do  what  you  may."  "We 
derive  from  this  fact  the  use  of  "will"  in  the  first  person 
to  indicate  an  intention  or  a  promise. 

Rule  I. —  When  the  speaker  desires  simphj  to  state  a 
future  fact,  he  must  say,  ^^Ishall,''^  ^^  you  will, ''^  '"'"liewiW; 
^^ we  shall,''''  ^^ you  ivill,^''  '^ they  will.''''  Whoi  the  speaker 
desires  to  express  a  wish,  to  give  a  command,  to  make  a 
promiseor  a  threat,  he  must  say^^I  wilW''  ^\i/ou  shall,''^  ''''he 
slidU,''''  etc.  He  may  violate  tliis  rule  if  he  wishes  to 
fxpress  a  command  very  politely;  e.y.,  ^^  You  will  report 
to  the  dean  at  10  o'clock.'" 

2.  '''"SlicdV  and  '^ irilV  in  Qi/cstions. — Here,  too,  we 
must  keep  in  mind  l)oth  the  difi'erence  in  meaning  between 


IMPROPRIETIES  171 

the  two  verbs  and  the  fact  that  politeness  ordinarily  for- 
bids a  direct  assumption  of  control  over  someone  else. 
In  first  person  questions  which  really  ask  for  information, 
"will"  is  never  used,  because  to  ask  someone  else  what 
our  own  wish  is,  is  nonsensical ;  we  know  it  already.  But 
when  the  speaker  is  using  the  interrogative  form  to  give 
a  doubtful  answer  to  a  request,  "will"  is  colloquially 
justifiable;  e.  g.,  "Will  you  do  this  for  me?"  "Will  I? 
I  hardly  know  yet."  Again,  the  use  of  "will"  in  the 
ironical  "echo"  of  a  command  (e.  g.,  "I  will,  will  1?")  is 
permissible,  though  extremely  colloquial.  It  sliould 
further  be  noted  that  the  "shall"  used  in  questions  of 
the  first  person  becomes  in  the  answer,  according  to  Rule 
I,  "will."  "Shall  I  find  the  book  there?"  gets  the  answer, 
"You  will."  In  questions  of  the  second  person  we 
use  "shall"  or  "will"  according  as  we  question  the  fact 
or  the  desire  of  the  person  spoken  to.  "Shall  you  go?" 
gets  the  answer,  "I  shall";  "Will  you  go?"  gets  the 
answer,  "I  will."  In  questions  of  the  third  person  the 
rule  of  courtesy  intervenes,  and  we  usually  ask,  not, 
"Shall  he?"  but,  "Will  he?"  "Shall  he?"  will  get  the 
positive  answer,  "He  shall,"  i.  e.,  "He  must;  we  will 
force  him  to";  "Will  he?"  will  get  the  answer,  "lie 
will" — a  simple  future  according  to  Rule  I.  However, 
with  certain  almost  impersonal  questions  of  the  third 
person — when  "shall"  is  equivalent  to  "can" — we  use 
"shall";  for  example: 

How  shall  he  cut  without  any  knife? 
How  shall  he  marry  without  any  wife? 

Rule  II. — la  (til  questions  of  the  first  person  which 
really  ask  for  inforniatioti^  use  '''■shall'";  in  questions  of  the 
second  or  third  persoji,  use  in  the  question  the  form  you, 
expect  in  the  answer.  When  in  the  third  person  the  verb  is 
equivalent  to  ''ca)i,^''  use  ^'' shall,'''' 


172  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

3.  '^Shair^  and  '■^wilV  in  Subordinate  Clauses  [indirect 
discourse). — When,  in  direct  discourse,  "shall"  is  used, 
"shall"  must  also  be  used  in  the  indirect  form.  If  the 
speaker  says,  "I  shall  go  at  once,"  he  must  be  reported 
as  follows:  "He  says  he  [or  "you  say  you"]  shall  go  at 
once."  If  the  speaker  says  "will,"  e.  g.,  "I  will  do  it," 
he  is  expressing,  not  a  future  fact,  but  a  wish  or  a  prom- 
ise, and  is  to  be  reported  as  follows,  "He  says  [or  agrees, 
or  promises,  etc.]  that  he  will  do  it."  Such  sentences 
as,  "He  fears  he  will  be  late,"  involve  an  absurdity.  But 
when  we  are  reporting  what  the  third  person  says  of  the 
second  person,  we  must  use  "will";  e.  g. ,  "He  fears  you 
will  be  late." 

EuLE  III. —  When  there  is  a  question  as  to  which  form — 
'"''shalV  or  ^UvilV — to  use  in  indirect  discourse,  use  the 
form  that  you  find  when  you  turn  the  sentence  into  direct 
discourse. 

75.  "Should"  and  "would."—!.  Special  Uses  of 
''should''  and  "wo«/f?."— "Should"  and  "would"  have 
some  special  uses  which  we  shall  do  Avell  to  consider 
before  we  take  up  their  use  as  conditional  or  subjunctive 
auxiliaries.  Of  "should"  there  is  one  special  use:  it  is 
employed,  with  an  infinitive,  to  denote  duty  or  obligation ; 
e.  g.,  "In  case  of  an  unrighteous  deed,  you  should  be  too 
honest  to  defend  your  action."  In  this  case  "should"  is 
equivalent  to  "ought  to."  "Would"  has  two  special 
uses:  (1)  it  is  used  to  denote  habitual  action,  as  in,  "He 
would  often  go  to  sleep  during  the  sermon,"  where  it  is 
equivalent  to  "was  accustomed  to";  (2)  it  is  used  to 
express  a  wish,  as  in,  "Would  (xod  I  had  died  before  this 
day,"  and,  "Would  that  he  were  here."  In  this  case,  as 
is  natural  'from  the  fact  that  "would"  is  the  past  tense  of 
"will,"  it  means  "It  is  my  wish  that."  This  second  use 
is  slightly  archaic. 

2.   '' ShouUV  and  'UvoiiUr'  in  Main  Clauses. — In  the 


IMPROPRIETIES  173 

use  of  "should"  and  "would"  in  the  main  clauses  of  con- 
ditional sentences,  the  rule  for  the  use  of  "shall"  and 
"will"  in  main  clauses  applies:  "should"  is  the  nor- 
mal form  for  the  first  person,  "would"  for  the  second  and 
third  persons.  But  "should"  normally  goes  with  "I" 
and  "we,"  simply  because  of  the  meaning.  "I  should 
go  if  I  could,"  states  a  fact.  "I  would  go  if  I  could," 
means,  "I  should  want  to  go  if  I  could."  "You  [or  he] 
should  go  if  you  [or  he]  could,"  means,  "You  ought  to 
go  if  you  could,"  and  implies  more  control  by  the  speaker 
than  it  is  ordinarily  proper  to  assure.  Either  form  is 
correct ;  the  question  is  entirely  one  of  meaning. 

Rule  IV. — In  main  clauses  use  ''^shou.l(V\f or  the  first 
person,  except  luliere  you  desire  to  imply  determination  or 
desire.  For  the  second  and  tliird  iier sons,  use  ^^would,^^ 
unless  you  wish  to  give  the  speaker  a  sort  of  authority  over 
the  person  spolcen  to  or  of. 

3.  ^^ShouUr''  and  ^^wouhV  in  Questions. — In  questions 
of  the  first  person,  "would,"  like  "will,"  is  usually 
improper.  One  ought  not  to  say,  "Where  would  I  be  if 
that  happened?"  but,  "Where  should  I  be?"  In  ques- 
tions of  the  second  person,  either  "should"  or  "would" 
may  be  correct,  because,  though  usually  the  speaker  asks  a 
question  of  fact  merely,  he  may  mean,  "What  will  your 
desire  be?"  "Should  you  go  to  town  if  you  could?"  and, 
"Would  you  go  to  town  if  you  could?"  mean  different 
things  and  properly  get  different  answers.  With  the 
third  person,  "would"  is  usually  the  correct  form;  we 
say,  "Would  he  go?"  because  neither  the  speaker  nor 
the  one  spoken  to  can  usually  assume  control  of  the 
one  spoken  of.  "Should  he  go?"  would  mean,  "Ought 
he  to  go?" 

Rule  V. — In  questions  use  '■'shoukV  or  ^UooukV 
according  to  the  answer  you  expect.  Almost  always 
^^shouUV     is    correct    for    the  first    person.        Usually 


174  COMPOSITION   A^^D   RHETORIC 

^^shouhr^  IS  correct  for  the  second  jjcrson,  ^''  tt'ouhV  for  the 
third. 

4.  '■'■  SliouUr''  and  ^^woukV  in  Indirect  Discourse  {i.e., 
in  subordinate  clauses). — We  say  usually,  "The  man  said 
that  he  should  be  ready  at  one,  and  that  his  friend  also 
would  be  ready,"  because  usually  the  speaker  does  not 
mean  that  he  will  force  his  friend  to  be  ready.  What  the 
speaker  said  was,  "I  shall  be  ready,  and  my  friend  will  be 
ready  too."  Had  he  said,  "My  friend  shall  be  ready," 
we  should  have  reported  him  as  follows:  "He  said  his 
friend  should  be  ready  too."  Had  he  said,  "I  will  bo 
ready,"  it  would  have  been  a  promise,  to  be  reported  as 
follows:  "He  said  he  would  be  ready." 

EuLE  V^I. — In  indirect  discourse,  use  '■'■should'"'  if  the 
spealcer  you  are  reporting  said  ",s'7/y?//";  ^'' would''''  if  he 
said  ''will.'' 

5.  ''Should"  and ''would"  in  "//"  Clauses.— "U  l,il 
you,  if  he  should  [go]"  are  the  proper  forms  for  the 
future  subjunctive.  "If  I,  if  you,  if  he  would  [go]"  are 
the  forms  for  the  future  optative.  The  first  set  questions 
the  fact;  the  second,  the  will  or  intention.  Where 
there  is  not  clearly  a  question  of  volition,  "should"  must 
be  used;  such  sentences  as,  "If  I  [or  you  or  he]  would 
liappen  to  read  the  book,  it  would  be  well,"  are  wrong. 
J)ut,  "If  you  or  ho  would  only  read  the  book,  it  would  be 
Avell,"  is  correct.  It  may  be  noted  that  "if"  clauses  are 
the  only  case  in  which  the  convention  of  politeness  has 
not  caused  a  union  of  the  two  verbs  "shall"  and  "will." 

Rule  VII. — In  "'if'  clauses,  use  "should'"  in  all  three 
persons  when  the  question  is  one  of  fact;  "would"  when  it 
is  one  of  volilion. 

All  these  rules  should  be  carefully  studied.  One  gen- 
eral suggestion  will  be  found  helpful.  \\\  point  of  fact, 
Americans  aiul  Scotchmen  use  "will"  or  "would"  in 
manv  cases  where  thev  should   use  "shall"  or  "should." 


IMPROPRIETIES  115 

Mr.    Barrio,  in    Wlteii  a    Man^s   Single,  puts  the   matter 
pointedly. 

•'By  the  way,  you  are  Scotch,  I  think." 
"Yes,"  said  Rob. 

"I  only  asked,"  the  editor  explained,  "because  of  the  shall 
and  will  difficulty.     Have  j'ou  got  over  that  yet?" 
"No,"  Rob  said  sadly,  "and  never  will." 

76.  Some  Common  Improprieties. — Iniprof)rieties  are  so 
common  that  the  safest  way  of  avoiding  error  is  to  know 
what  words  are  most  commonly  misused.  A  long  list  of 
such  words  is  given  below.  In  several  cases,  the  distinc- 
tions made  are  not  accepted  by  all  dictionaries.  How- 
ever, a  sense  of  the  finer  shades  of  meaning  in  words  is 
worth  cultivating,  even  if,  in  a  particular  case,  general 
carelessness  will  sooner  or  later  obliterate  the  distinction. 
In  some  few  instances  a  distinction  is  drawn  mainly  to 
show  that  what  are  called  synonyms  are  seldom  exact 
equivalents.  Whenever  an  illustration  will  make  the 
point  clear,  comment  is  omitted  and  an  illustrative  sen- 
tence is  given. 

The  student  should  do  more  than  merely  learn  the 
words  and  their  meanings.  Having  first  found  out  both 
the  correct  and  the  incorrect  uses  of  the  words,  he  should 
then  frame  sentences  employing  the  words  in  their  cor- 
rect senses.  As  often  ag  possible  he  should  also  look  up 
the  etymology  of  the  words.  When  one  knows  that 
"transpire"  contains  the  two  Latin  words  trans  (through) 
and  sjyirare  (to  breathe),  he  is  not  likely  to  use  it  in  the 
sense  of  "to  happen."  To  the  man  who  knows  that 
"demean"  comes  from  se  demener  (to  bear  one's  self)  the 
use  of  "demean"  for  "debase"  or  "degrade"  is  an 
obvious  absurdity. 

77.  Verbs. 

1.  Affect,  effect:  The  sharp  air  affected  Smith's  throat, 
because,  when  he  effected  his  escape  from  prison,  he  had  not 
been  in  the  open  air  for  months. 


176  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

2.  Aggravate,  provoke:  (look  up  the  derivation  of  "aggra- 
vate"). For  tlie  soldier  to  provoke  the  general  as  he  did  was  to 
aggravate  (i.  e. ,  to  increase)  his  offense.^ 

3.  Allude,  elude,  mention :  The  orator  aUitded  to  the  tyranny 
he  dared  not  mention.  But  the  point  eluded  most  of  the  audi- 
ence.    (In  "allude,"'  "elude,"  note  the  force  of  the  prefixes.) 

4.  Accept,  except:  (note  the  force  of  the  prefixes)  The  gen- 
eral accepted  paroles  from  every  officer  but  one.  He  excepted 
the  treacherous  spy  Walters. 

5.  Allow,  guess,  think:  I  will  not  alloiv  you  to  go.  I  think  I 
can  guess  pretty  nearly  the  cause  of  your  request.  (The  use  of 
"allow"  for  "think"  is  a  vulgarism.  "Guess"  for  "think"  is 
widely  used,  and  was  once  good  English.  Careful  writers  slmn 
it,  however.) 

6.  Admire,  like:  I  should  like  to  read  a  good  life  of  Napoleon, 
whom  I  much  admire.  (The  use  of  "admire"  in  the  sen.se  of 
"like  to,  "desire  to,"  "be  pleased  to,"  is  a  vulgarism.) 

7.  Approach,  appeal  to :  We  wi.shed  to  appjeal  to  the  governor 
in  private  about  the  new  game  law.  But  our  courage  failed  vis 
when  we  found  that  we  must  approach  him  through  a  large 
group  of  officials  who  stood  negligently  about  his  table.  (The 
use  of  "approach"  for  "appeal  to"— e.  g.,  "The  governor  was 
approached  about  the  ten-o'clock  closing  law""— is  newspaper 
English. ) 

8.  Accede,  cede :  At  the  end  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  the 
French  government,  forced  to  accede  to  the  demands  of  the  Ger- 
man emperor,  ceded  to  the  latter  the  provinces  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine.     (Rare  cases  of  "accede"="yield"  may  be  found.) 

9.  A.ssist,  be  present:  (the  use  of  "assist"  in  the  sense  of  "be 
present"  is  not  English). 

10.  Claim,  maintain:  He  still  maintained  that  he  could  prop- 
erly claim  the  estate.  ("Claim"  means  properly  "to  lay  claim 
to."  Its  use  as  equivalent  to  "maintain""  or  "assert"'  is  com- 
mon but  improper. ) 

11.  Condone,  atone  for:  Since  he  atoned  for  the  insult  offered 
me,  by  a  full  and  public  apology,  I  was  ready  to  condone  his 
offense.     ("Condone"  has  no  other  meaning  than  "forgive.") 

12.  Decimate,  destroy :  The  cowardly  regiment  wliich  fied  was 


'  The  Century  Dictionary  say.s  that  ar/grarate=proroke  is  colloquial.  Wheu 
The  Century,  whose  standards  havt^  been  criticized  as  too  lax,  lists  a  word  as 
colloquial  or  Ainericau  only  (U.  S.  is  the  abbreviation  used),  it  is  well  to 
avoid  that  word. 


IMPROPUrETIES  1T7 

almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  enemy.  Their  own  commander 
had  the  survivors  decimated  the  next  morning  as  a  warning  to 
the  rest  of  the  army.  ("Decimate,"'  from  the  Latin  decern  [tenj. 
means  to  take  out  every  tenth  person  or  part.  It  is  loosely  or 
figuratively  used  to  indicate  the  destruction  of  a  great  but  indefi" 
nite  part  of  anything,  but  it  can  not  properly  imply  total  destruc- 
tion.) 

13.  Demean,  degrade,  debase:  The  officer  who  debased  himself 
by  cowardice  was  degraded  the  next  morning.  During  the  tiy- 
ing  ordeal  he  demeaned  himself  far  better  than  he  had  done  on 
the  field  of  battle.  ("Demean,''  coming  from  the  French  .se 
demener,  means  nothing  but  "to  conduct  one's  self."  To  those 
ignorant  of  its  origin  it  seems  to  have  some  connection  with  the 
adjective  "mean"  ;  hence  its  improper  use  as  "to  behave  ill.") 

14.  Discover,  invent:  Had  the  steamship  been  invented  in 
1400,  America  would  have  been  discovered  long  before  it  was. 
(We  invent  something  new;  we  discover  things  ah'eady  existing. 
Note  also  the  strictly  literal  use  of  "discover"  in  such  sentences 
as  the  following : 

"Go,  draw  aside  the  curtains,  and  discoirr 
The  several  caskets  to  tliis  noble  ])rince. "" 

— Merchant  of  Venice,  II,  vii.) 

15.  Eliminate,  elicit:  Having  elicited  tliis  damaging  admis- 
sion, the  lawyer  eliminated,  one  by  one.  the  possibilities  of  the 
prisoner's  innocence.  ("To  eliminate"  means  "to  thrust  out,"' 
as  from  an  equation.  It  does  not  mean  "to  draw  out  from."" 
When  you  pick  a  truth  out  of  a  mass  of  details,  j^ou  liave  not 
eliminated  it,  but  found  it.  "To  eliminate""  it  would  be  to  throw 
it  aside. 

16.  Extend,  give:  We  gave  the  new  mayor  a  dinner  last 
week.  Down  the  big  hall,  on  every  side,  extended  long  tables. 
Tlie  outgoing  mayor  extended  his  hand  to  liis  succe.ssor  very 
cordially.  ("To  extend  a  dinner"  to  a  man  is  a  common  but 
faulty  expression.) 

17.  Expect,  suppo.se:  I  had  not  exprotcd  this  opposition.  I 
suppose  you  were  as  much  surprised  as  I  was.  ("Expect"  refers 
to  the  future  only.  It  is  not  a  synonym  of  "•suppose,"'  "suspect,"" 
"think,"  "conclude,"  "imagine,"  etc.) 

18.  Fly,  flee,  flow:  The  murderers  of  Lawton  were  forced  to 
flee.  In  their  flight  they  passed  by  that  same  swiftly  floicing 
river  on  wliose  banks  they  had  committed  the  crime.     They /fed 


178  COMPOSITION    AXD    IIHETORIC 

almost  as  swiftly  as  birds ^?/.  (The  correct  forms  of  these  verbs 
are:  "fly,"  "flew,"  "flown";  "flee,"  "fled,"  "fled";  "flow," 
"flowed,"  "flowed."  Good  use  allows,  as  a  figure  of  speech,  "He 
Jleir  before  the  coming  punishment,"  etc.) 

19.  Fix,  mend :  Tiie  watchmaker  first  mended  the  clock.  Then 
he  fixed  it  steadily  on  the  wall.  ("Fix"  in  the  sense  of' 
"mend"  or  "repair"  is  a  common  but  slovenly  usage.  Note  the 
correct  use  of  the  word  in  such  expressions  as  "  ^.n??gr  a  nega- 
tive" and  ''fixing  [i.  e.,  settling,  establishing]  the  meaning  of  a 
word.") 

20.  Hanged,  hung:  The  murderer  was  betrayed  by  the  long 
and  peculiarly  black  locks  which  liuug  down  over  his  shoulders. 
After  a  speedy  trial,  he  was  as  speedily  hanged.  (Tiie  past 
ten.se  and  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  "to  hang,"  meaning 
"to  put  to  death  by  hanging,"  are  "hanged,"  not  "hung.") 

21.  Inaugurate,  commence,  begin:  {The  Century  Dictionary 
says  that  "inaugurate"  means:  1,  to  "invest  formally  Avith  an 
office"  ;  2,  to  "make  a  formal  beginning  of  something  of  impor- 
tance." Thus,  we  inaugurate  a  president  or  a  movement  for  tariff 
reform.  "Commence"  and  "begin"  are  synonymous,  but  the 
Century — and  most  critics — prefer  "begin"  to  "commence," 
especiall}^  "before  another  verb  in  the  infinitive,"  The  reasons 
for  the  preference  are  that  "begin"  is  both  a  native  word  and  a 
simpler  word. ) 

22.  Leave,  let :  Leave  it,  then.  Let  it  stand  exactly  as  it  is. 
(The  use  of  "leave"  for  "let"  [e.g.,  "Leave  it  be"]  is  a  vulgarism. ) 

23.  Lie,  lay:  Having  laid  the  book  on  the  table,  he  lay  down 
at  once.  (These  two  verbs  are  among  the  most  commonly  mis- 
used words.  Usually  the  verb  "lay,"  "laid,"  "laid,"  is  transi- 
tive and  should  take  an  object.  The  verb  "lie,"  "lay,"  "lain"  is 
intransitive  or  reflexive  and  should  have  no  object.) 

24.  Learn,  teach:  He  taught  me  so  well  that  I  learned  to 
si^eak  French  in  six  months.  (The  use  of  "learn"  for  "teach." 
as  in,  "He  learned  me  to  write,"  though  very  old,  is  a  vulgarism.) 

25.  Love,  like :  We  like  candy  and  excursions.  We  love  our 
parents.  (The  use  of  "love"  for  "like"  shows  immaturity  or 
sentimentality.) 

26.  May,  can:  Mayl  have  that  French  book?  Yes,  but  can 
you  read  it?  ("Can"  implies  only  ability  to  do  something. 
"May"  asks  for  permission.  ''Can  I  open  the  door?"  and,  "Can 
I  go?"  are  usually  in(;orreet.  Wherever  you  mean,  "Will  you 
grant  me  permission?"  use  "may.") 


IMPROPRIETIES  179 

27.  Negotiate,  sell:  (a  glance  at  the  dictionary  will  show  the 
rarious  meanings  of  "negotiate."  Its  use  in  commercial  lan- 
guage in  the  sense  of  "sell"  seems  permissible  only  when  tlie 
transaction  is  one  of  some  importance.  We  say  properly  that 
Brazil  negotiated  the  sale  of  a  warship  to  the  United  States.  We 
can  not  say  that  Mr.  Jones  negotiated  the  purchase  of  a  lawn- 
mower.  The  use  of  "negotiate"="manage"  is  slang;  e.g., "In 
his  first  leap  the  horse  negotiated  a  ten-foot  fence") 

38.  Purpose,  propose:  Since  I  purpose  to  leave  town  at  once,  I 
ii\\a\\  propose  a  new  plan  immediately.  (Careful  writers  usually 
observe  this  distinction.  In  colloquial  English  the  words  are 
often  confused.) 

29.  Proscribe,  prescribe:  The  emperor pre-scn&ecZ  for  his  cour- 
tiers a  course  of  action  wliich  speedily  brought  about  a  revolt. 
Then  he  proscribed  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion. 

30.  Promise,  assure:  I  assure  you  I  shall  promise  no  such 
thing.     (Colloquially  the  two  words  are  often  confused.) 

31.  Resume,  sum  up:  I  resumed  my  speech  after  the  interrup- 
tion, but  could  not  go  on  well,  and  was  forced  to  sum  up 
hastily.  ("Resume"  in  the  sense  of  "sum  up"  is  a  usage  caught 
from  tlie  French  word  resumer. ) 

32.  Stop,  stay:  The  boat  stopped  at  Porter's  Landing,  where  I 
went  ashore  and  stayed  for  the  rest  of  the  day.  ("To  stop" 
means  "to  cause  a  cessation  of  action,"  or  "to  cease  acting." 
"To  stay"  means  "to  remain."  Hence,  "I  stopped  with  my 
friend  for  a  month,"  is  incoi'rect.) 

33.  Sit,  set:  Will  you  sit  down?  Yes,  after  I  have  set  this 
basket  on  the  table.  (Adequate  comment  on  these  verbs  is 
impossible  here.     Look  the  words  up  in  a  good  dictionary. ) 

34.  State,  say:  He  stated  the  case  with  great  formality.  I  said 
I  could  not  grant  his  request.  (In  the  second  sentence  above, 
"state"  in  thei^laceof  "say"  would  be  a  pretentious  impropriety. 
Shun  the  sentence,  "I  want  to  state  right  here.") 

35.  Transpire,  happen:  It  soon  transpired  that  an  event  of 
great  moment  had  happened  at  the  council  board.  (Note  the 
derivation  of  "transpire."  The  word  means  "to  become 
known."  But  such  sentences  as  "A  most  incompetent  gover- 
nor-general has  transpired  in  the  Philippines,"  are  com^nen 
in  newspapers. ) 

78.  Nouns. 

1.  Act,  action,  deed:  (of  these  words  Tlie  Century  Dictionary 


180  COMPOSITION    ANT>   RHETORIC 

says  in  part:  "In  manj'  cases  these  words  are  sjmonymous,  but 
action  [in  the  singular]  denotes  moi'e  particularly  the  operation, 
act  and  deed  the  accomplished  result.  Only  action  may  be  used 
to  signify  the  doing  or  the  method  of  doing.  .  .  .  An  action  may 
Include  many  acts,  while  act  is  generally  individuar"). 

2.  Alternative,  choice:  Going  or  staying  is  your  alternative. 
Among  the  three  courses  of  action  already  abandoned  by  you 
there  was  no  choice.  ("Alternative"  implies  a  choice  between 
two  things, "or  courses  of  action.  Wlien  only  one  course  is  pos- 
sible, there  is  no  alternative.  Tlie  word  can  not  properly  be 
applied  to  a  choice  among  more  than  two  things  or  courses  of 
action. ) 

3.  Avocation,  vocation :  For  eight  years  Mr.  Smith's  vocation 
was  making  shoes.  His  ayocah'oji  was  hunting.  ("Avocation." 
because  of  the  prefix  "a,"  means  "a  calling  away  from."  It 
should  never  be  used  for  "trade"  or  "pi-ofession.") 

4.  Acceptance,  acceptation:  ("acceptance"  should  be  used 
"for  the  act  of  accepting,"  "acceptation  for  "the  state  of  being 
accepted."  See  the  New  English  Dictionary,  the  Century,  or 
any  other  good  diet  ionar j' ). 

5.  Access,  accession:  Henry  V.  of  England  changed  greatly 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne.  To  all  his  disreputable  com- 
panions of  the  old  days  he  denied  access.  (These  two  words  have 
so  many  different  meanings  that  it  would  be  useless  to  try  to 
give  them  here.  But  if,  in  the  sentences  above,  the  two  be  trans- 
posed, the  student  will  have  a  good  example  of  the  common  error 
in  using  them.     Consult  a  good  dictionary  about  these  words.) 

6.  Balance,  remainder:  We  gave  the  remainder  of  the  da,y  to 
an  attempt  to  find  the  transposed  figures  that  made  the  balance 
of  our  cash  book  wrong.  ("Balance"  in  the  sense  of  "rest"  or 
"remainder"  is  an  overworked  figure  of  speech  taken  from  com- 
mercial life.  The  Century  says  it  is  colloquial  and  of  American 
origin.) 

7.  Council,  counsel:  The  councilor  Governor  Smith  gave  the 
strikers  good  counsel.  (The  words  are  pretty  well  confused.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  "countul"  is  an  advising  body; 
"counsel"  is  the  advice  they  give.  Note,  however,  the  use  of 
"counsel"  to  indicate  a  lawyer.) 

8.  Character,  reputation:  His  character  is  so  good  that  we 
could  not  smirch  his  rep^itation  if  we  tried.  (In  general,  "repu- 
tation" is  the  estimate  the  public  has  of  one's  "character.") 

9.  Depot,  railway  station:   The  hasty  massing  of   the  troops 


IMPROPKIETIES  181 

made  it  necessary  to  turn  the  railway  station  into  a  depot  ol 
army  supplies.  (The  use  of  depot  for  station  is  particularly 
unfortunate,  for  it  robs  us  of  the  best  word  we  have  to  express  a 
place  for  collecting  or  storing  goods. ) 

10.  Educator,  teacher :  ("educator"  is  ^  rather  pompous  word 
for  "a  specialist  in  education."  Its  use  as  a  synonym  of 
"teacher"  is  to  be  condemned.  "I  am  thankful,"  said  a  famous 
classical  scholar,  "that  I'm  not  an  educator;  I'm  only  a 
teacher.''') 

11.  Emigration,  immigration:  (note  the  force  of  the  prefixes). 
When  men  leave  a  foreign  country  to  settle  in  America,  they 
are  emigrants.  When  they  enter  New  York,  they  are  immi- 
grants. 

12.  Enormity,  enormousness :  The  enormousness  of  this 
prince's  wealth  was  equaled  only  by  the  enormity  of  the  crimes 
he  had  committed  in  amassing  it.  ("Enormity"  is  "enormous- 
ness" in  a  bad  sense.) 

13.  Female,  woman:  The  female  of  the  human  kind  is  called 
woman.  (To  say,  ''A  female  has  been  found  dead  at  the  road- 
side," when  the  body  is  that  of  a  woman,  is  wrong.  The  writ- 
ers of  the  early  nineteenth  century  used  tlie  word  freely  in  this 
sense,  but  good  use  now  condemns  it  as  a  vulgarism.  Among 
the  ranks  of  the  pretentious  and  the  half-educated  there  is  an 
aversion  to  the  simple  and  excellent  word  "woman.") 

14.  Gentleman,  man;  lady,  woman:  Not  all  men  are  gentle- 
men, and  not  all  ivomeii  are  ladies.  (No  adequate  comment  on 
these  words  can  be  given  here.  Look  them  up  in  a  good  dic- 
tionary. U.se  "gentleman"  and  "lady"  very  simringly.  Shun 
the  phrases  "gentleman  friend"  and  "lady  friend"  as  vulgarisms.) 

15.  House,  home:  A  ho  me.  is  the  place  in  which  one  has  a  fixed 
residence.  (The  two  words  are  not  synonymous:  the  house,  so  to 
speak,  contains  the  home.     One  builds,  not  a  home,  but  a  house. ) 

16.  Invention,  discovery:  (see  "discover,"  section  77). 

17.  Individual,  man,  woman :  Though  we  condemn  the  society 
as  a  whole,  we  may  freely  admire  some  individuals  belonging  to 
it,  since  they  are  men  and  ivomen  of  firm  and  stalwart  character. 
("Individual"  conies  from  the  Latin  individuus  [indivisible], 
and  may  stand  for  "man"  or  "woman"  "only  when  members  of 
a  class  ai"e  viewed  as  atoms  or  units  of  a  whole. "  '  Its  use  as  an 
exact  synonym  of  "person,"  "man,"  or  "woman"  is  common 
but  objectionable. ) 

1  Quoted  from  Hodgson's  Errors  in  English. 


182  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIO 

18.  Limit,  limitation:  The  li))iits  placed  upon  Frederick  the 
(ireafs  youtlifiil  activity  were  likely  to  produce  a  corresponding 
limitation  of  intellect.  (Generally,  "limits"  means  the  physical 
bounds. ) 

19.  Loan,  lend :  We  lent  the  money  to  him.  For  the  loan  he 
was  grateful.  (The  regular  verb  from  the  noun  "loan"  is 
"lend."  "Loan"  is  not  properly  a  verb,  but  a  noun.  The  Cen- 
tury says  of  the  use  of  "loan"  as  a  transitive  verb,  that  it  is  "an 
objectionable  use,  rare  in  Great  Britain.") 

20.  Observation,  observance:  The  observation  of  the  stars  led 
in  the  past,  to  many  religious  observances. 

21.  Party,  person:  The  par/y  of  tramps  contained  ten  jpersoJis, 
men,  women,  and  children.  ("Tarty,"  in  the  sense  of  "man" 
or  "person,"  is  inexcusable.  Note,  however,  the  peculiar 
and  legal  use  of  the  word  in,  "Smith  was  a  party  to  the 
crime,"  ''a. party  to  the  contract,"  and  "the parf?/ of  the  first 
part. ' " ) 

22.  Plenty,  plentiful:  Money  is i>/e?i?z/«Z  among  farmers  now, 
because  last  fall  they  \\3i.A plenty  of  grain.  ("Plenty"  is  a  noun, 
and,  colloquially,  an  adjective,  but  not  an  adverb.  ''Plenty 
good' '  is  a  vulgarism. ) 

23.  Portion,  part:  ("portion"  contains  the  idea  of  a  distinct 
setting  aside.  ''Portion,''  says  the  Century,  "is  often  used  in  a 
stilted  way  when  jjar^  would  be  simpler  and  better."  But  the 
distinction  is  hard  to  observe  and  seems  to  be  dying). 

24.  Professor,  instructor,  teacher:  The  university  ranks  its 
teachers  as  jit'ofessors  and  instructors.  ("Professor"  means  only 
an  instructor  of  professorial  rank  in  an  institution  that  grants 
degrees. ) 

25.  Quantity,  number:  I  have  for  sale  a  vast  quantity  of  grain, 
but  only  a  small  number  oi  squashes.  ("Quantity"  measures 
))ulk;  "number"  counts  the  units.  W-e  can  not  speak  of  a  (jiHui- 
tity  of  men  or  books. ) 

26.  Rendition,  rendering,  reading,  playing:  The  rendition  of 
tlie  town  to  the  conqueror  was  speedily  accomplished.  The 
actor's  rendering  of  Jiis  part  was  good.  The  elocutionist's  reading 
was  excellent.  The  actress  played  the  chambermaid's  part 
rather  poorly.  (Dickens  says:  "By  the  way,  that  word,  Read- 
ing, in  its  critical  use,  always  charms  me.  An  actress's  Reading 
of  a  chambermaid,  a  dancer's  Reading  of  a  hornpipe,  a  singer's 
Reading  of  a  .song,  a  marine  painter's  Reading  of  tlie  sea,  the 
kettle-'lniminer's    Reading    of    an    instrumental    passage,    are 


IMPIIOPRIETIES  183 

phrases  ever  youthful  and  delightful. "'  "Rendition"  has  two 
legitimate  meanings:  1,  translation,  2,  surrender.  Its  use  as 
equivalent  to  "reproducing  artistically"  is  objectionable.) 

27.  Recipe,  receipt :  Here  is  a  receipt  for  your  inouey  and  a 
recipe  for  apple  pies.  (The  use  of  "recipe"  for  "directions  for 
compounding"  is  preferable  to  "receipt"  simply  because  the 
latter  word  has  a  second  meaning.) 

28.  Relative,  relation :  To  my  relatives  I  stand  in  an  vmusual 
relation  of  enmity.  (Precisians  say  that  "relation"  in  the  sense 
of  "family  connection"  is  to  be  avoided  because  it  has  also  the 
more  general  meaning  indicated  in  the  sentence  above.  But 
many  careful  writers  fail  to  observe  the  distinction. ) 

29.  Right,  duty :  It  is  not  right  to  say,  '  'You  had  a  right  to 
tell  me,"  when  you  mean,  "It  was  your  dutij  to  tell  me." 

30.  Statue,  statute,  stature:  The  small  stature  of  Napoleon 
is  reproduced  accurately  in  this  statue.  A  si^ecial  statute 
provides  that  every  defacement  of  the  statue  shall  be  a  crim- 
inal offense. 

31.  Storm,  shower:  ("storm"  is  often  vised  bombastically  in 
place  of  "shower."  "Storm"  means  properly  a  more  or  less 
violent  disturbance  of  the  elements). 

32.  Scholar,  student,  pupil:  Of  the  many  high-school  p?fp?7.s' 
(or  students)  only  a  small  number  become  university  students, 
and  of  the  studeiits  in  the  university  and  in  the  world  at  large 
only  a  few  become  real  scliolars. 

33.  School,  college,  university:  The  sc/tooZ  year  and  the  college 
year  do  not  often  coincide.  (Eveiy  institution  of  learning  is,  of 
course,  a  "school,"  but  the  best  usage  condemns  such  sentences 
as,  "I  went  to  Harvard ;  it  is  a  good  school. ' ' ) 

34.  Team,  carriage,  etc.:  ("team"  is  incorrectly  used  in 
America  to  denote  a  vehicle.  It  properly  refers  to  two  or  more 
animals  harnessed  together.  Its  use  in  such  phrases  as  the  "foot- 
ball team'''  has  been  called  colloquial,  but  seems  really  unobjec- 
tionable). 

79.  Adverbs. 

1.  Awfully,  very:  She  is  vei^y  pretty.  (Save  "av/ful"  and 
"awfully"  for  cases  in  which  awe  is  inspired.  ''Awf idly  good,'' 
"awfully  pretty,"  and  all  similar  phrases  are  slang.) 

2.  Continuously,  continually:  (see  "continuous,"  "con- 
tinual," section  78) 

'  Quoted  from  Hodgsou'.s  Errors  in  English. 


184  CO-MPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

3.  Directly,  as  soon  as:  .Is  soon  as  he  got  to  New  York  he 
walked  directly  to  his  brother's  office.  (Do  not  say,  "I'll  go, 
(I i recti y  I  get  there.") 

4.  Most,  almost:  Many  of  us  were  almost  unable  to  continue 
our  journej'.  We  were,  in  fact,  most  plucky  to  have  got  even 
that  far.  ("Most,"  as  an  adverb,  means:  1,  "in  the  greatest 
possible  degree"  ;  2,   "chiefly."     "Almost"  means  "nearly.") 

5.  Quite,  very,  rather:  "When  you  are  quite  done  with  joking, 
I  hope  you  will  abandon  your  rather  unmanly  behavior.  It  is 
very  childish.  ("Quite"  means  "entirelj^"  ;  it  never  has  properly 
the  meaning  of  "very"  or  "rather."  Note  the  correct  use  of  the 
word  with  negatives  [e.  g.,  "It  is  not  quite  done,"]  and  in  such 
phrases  as  ''quite  no.' '  "Quite  warm,"  "quite  a  little,"  "quite 
clever, ' '  etc. ,  are  colloquial,  to  say  the  least. ) 

80.  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions. 

1.  Among,  between :  Beticeen  these  two  courses  of  action  I  can 
choose  easily.  If  the  choice  lay  among  three  or  four  courses, 
I  should  be  puzzled.  ("Between"  implies  two  things  or  courses 
of  action;    "among,"  more  than  two.) 

2.  As,  that:  (the  use  of  "as''  instead  of  "that"  to  introduce 
an  object  clause  after  "saj',"  "think,"  "know,"  etc.,  is  dialectic; 
e.  g. ,  "I  don't  know  as  I  do."     See  the  Century  Dictionary). 

3.  Excejjt,  unless:  Do  not  agree  to  his  j^roposition  unless  I 
write  you  to  do  so.  Except  for  the  final  clause,  I  am  likely  to 
agree  to  his  request.  ("Except"  as  a  conjunction  is  archaic; 
e.  g.,  "Except  a  man  be  born  again  ..."  Do  not  say,  "I  will 
not  go  except  you  go  too.") 

4.  In,  into:  In  the  room  into  which  he  had  pushed  the  boj', 
was  a  large  table.  (Compare  the  distinction  in  Latin  and  Ger- 
man between  "motion  in"  and  "motion  to.") 

5.  Like,  as:  ("like"  is  not  properly  a  conjunction.  Such  sen- 
tences as,  "It  seems  like  I  ought  to  go,"  are  entirelj^  improper). 

fi.  Without,  unless:  I  shall  not  go  toiZess  you  come.  We  never 
move  u-itJiout  due  preparation. 

81.  Adjectives. 

1.  Alone,  only:  {Worcester's  Dictionary  says:  "That  is  a/o??e 
wluch  is  unaccomi^anied ;  that  is  only  of  which  there  is  no 
other"). 

2.  .\])t.   likely,   liable:  The  apt  scholar  is  likely   (or  ajyt)   to 


IMPROPRIETIES  185 

succeed,   but  often  his  over-exertion  makes  him  liable  to  ill- 
health. 

3.  Condign,  great :  His  great  crime  received  condign  punish- 
ment. ("Condign" — from  the  Latin  con-digniis — meant  origi- 
nally "worthy."  Idiom  inclines  to  a  restriction  of  the  word  to 
phrases  implying  blame  or  punishment.  "He  received  condign 
reward,"  is  of  doubtful  correctness.  "Condign"  is  never  a 
verb. ) 

4.  Continual,  continuous:  The  calls  for  aid  are  continual 
(i.  e.,  recurrent).  The  sheet  of  ice  is  continuous.  ("Con- 
tinuous" denotes  an  unbroken  continuity.  "Continual"  denotes 
a  close  and  more  or  less  regular  succession  of  things,  rather  than 
absolute  continuity. ) 

5.  Clever,  kind:  Only  a  clever  man  would  have  done  that  kind 
action  so  vuiobtrusively.  ("Clever,"  in  the  sense  of  "pleasant," 
"affable,"  or  "kind,"  is  a  localism.) 

6.  Contemi^tible,  contemi^tuous :  It  is  well  to  be  contemptuous 
of  contemptible  people. 

7.  Corporal,  corporeal:  Corporal  punishment  can  be  given 
only  to  those  having  corporeal  existence. 

8.  Deadly,  deathly:  The  deadly  poison  produced  a  deathly  look 
at  once.  ("Deathly"  means  "like  death";  "deadly"  means 
"fatal") 

9.  Dangerous,  in  danger:  He  was  sick  ten  days  but  was  not 
thought  to  be  in  danger.  The  disease  was,  however,  far  more 
dangerous  than  was  supposed.  (A  newspaper  once  said,  "Mr. 
White,  who  died  yesterday,  was  sick  ten  days,  but  was  not 
thought  to  be  dangerous.") 

10.  Definite,  definitive:  The  judge's  opinion  was  so  definite 
and  comprehensive  that  I  said,  "That  is  a,  definitive  decision" 
(i.  e.,  it  settled  the  matter). 

11.  Distinct,  distinctive:  Most  men  are  undecided  enough  to 
have  three  or  four  distinct  ways  of  solving  the  same  problem. 
Only  the  man  who  has  one  definite  solution  can  be  .said  to  have 
a  distinctive  method. 

13.  Eminent,  prominent:  Many  a  political  leader  is  a,  p)^omi- 
nent  but  not  an  eminent  man. 

13.  Elegant,  excellent,  pleasing:  Really  elegant  furniture 
must  be  both  excellent  anA  pleasing .  (Unless  you  ax'e  perfectly 
sure  of  its  meaning,  "elegant"  is  a  good  word  to  avoid.) 

14.  Exceptional,  exceptionable:  John's  conduct  is,  to  be  sure, 
exceptional;  but   it  is    too  selffoi'getful  to  be    exceptionable. 


186  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC 

("Exceptional"  means  "out  of  the  ordinary";  "exceptionable" 
means  "open  to  adverse  comment") 

15.  Horrid,  unpleasant :  At  first  his  clammy  touch  was  merely 
unpleasant.     At  last  it  grew  even  horrid. 

16.  Healthy,  healthful,  wliolesome:  Man  can  not  be  healthij 
witliout  wholesome  food  and  a  healthful  climate. 

17.  Less,  fewer:  The  fcn'er  the  workmen,  the  less  will  be  the 
money  paid  out.  ("With  reference  to  size  and  number  the 
proper  words  are  smaller  and  fewer.''— The  Century  Dictionary.) 

18.  Impracticable,  impassable :  Since  the  broken  bridge  made 
the  road  impassable,  any  advance  was  impracticable. 

19.  Mad,  angry :  A  mact-man  may  not  be  angry  at  all. 

20.  Mutual,  common:  A  mutual  (reciprocal)  repulsion  drove 
Jones  and  me  ajmrt.  Yet  we  had  one  feeling  in  common:  we 
both  disliked  bombast. 

21.  Nice,  pleasant,  attractive:  ("Nice"  has  a  most  interesting 
history.  Its  origin  is  the  Latin  nescius  [foolish],  and  its  mean- 
ing in  the  English  of  1400  is  "foolish."  Tiien  it  gets  to  mean 
"foolishly  particular,"  then  "particular,"  then  "discriminat- 
ing," e.  g.,  "a  nice  distinction  in  words."  The  transition  to 
"excellent,"  and  then  to  "pleasing"  is  easy.  In  this  sense,  e.  g., 
"a  7iice  boy,"  ''a,  nice  book,"  it  seems  to  have  established  itself 
as  a  respectable  colloquialism.  But  in  writing,  tlie  meaning  of 
"discriniiuating"  is  still  to  be  preferred. 

22.  Notorious,  noted:  Carlyle  was  a  lioferf  man;  Jesse  James 
was  a  notorious  one.  ("Notorious"  means  "widely  but  unfavor- 
ably known.") 

23.  Oral,  verbal:  All  messages,  unless  they  are  like  that  skin- 
ful of  powder  sent  by  the  Puritans  to  the  Indians,  are  verbal, 
(i.e.  stated  in  words).  But  a  message  is  oral  only  when  it  is 
spoken. 

24.  Odd,  funny :  It  was  the  oddest  and  at  the  same  time  the 
most  lamentable  tiling  tliat  ever  happened  to  me.  Yet  it  was 
only  one  step  from  being  funny. 

25.  Posted,  informed:  He  is  so  well  informed  in  matters  of 
bookkeeping  that  he  rarely  po.sf.s  his  books  wrongly.  (Well- 
"posted"  for  well-"informed"  is  a  commercial  phrase  to  be 
avoided.) 

26.  Practicable,  practical :  Rarely  does  a  practical  man  evolve 
an  impracticable  plan.  ("A  practiced  plan"  differs  in  mean- 
ing from  ''a, practicable  plan."  Look  the  words  up  in  the  dic- 
tionary. ) 


IMPROPRIETIES  187 

27.  Real,  very:  (see    "very,"  section  86.) 

28.  Splendid,  pleasant:  Our  journey  through  the  splendid 
palaces  of  antiquity  was  more  than  pleasant.  (Never  use  "splen- 
did" unless  actual  splendor  is  implied. ) 

29.  Supreme,  last:  In  his  last  moments  he  had  the  supreme 
gratification  of  seeing  the  work  he  had  begun  completed.  (Look 
up  the  derivation  of  "supreme.") 

30.  WomanI}',  womanisli;  manly,  mannish;  child-like,  child- 
ish: Iilaria,  the  servant  in  Twelfth  NigJit,  lacked  many  u'omanly 
qualities.  But  one  gives  to  her  more  respect  than  he  does  to  the 
ivomanish  Sir  Andrew.  (Many  of  the  adjectives  ending  in 
"ish"  suggest  condemnation.  To  call  a  man  "a  child-like  per- 
son" is  to  call  attention,  not  unpleasantly,  to  his  simplicity;  to 
call  him  "childish"  is  to  stigmatize  him  as  immature  or  silly.) 

Exercise  XI 

A.  Define  the  term  impropriety.  Which  are  more  fre- 
quently found  in  writing,  barbarisms  or  improprieties? 
Why?  Which  are  the  more  harmful?  Why?  Hoav  do 
improprieties  arise?  How  may  you  rid  your  diction  of 
improprieties? 

B  Make  sentences  in  which  you  use  the  following  words 
correctly : 

affect  eliminate  liable 

allude  fix  depot 

claim  inaugurate  individual 

can        .  balance  party 

may  transpire  quite 

demean  alternative  professor 

discover  avocation 

C.  Explain  the  correct  uses  of  the  following  words: 

likely  clever  mad 

between  deadly  nice 

continuous  funny  verbal 

mannish  splendid  condign 

D.  Correct  the  improprieties  in  the  following  extracts : 

1.  In  their  places  we  should  instill  more  honest  men. 
3.  Helen?    Who  was  Helen?    Jack  wondered.     His  father  had 
never  intimidated  that  there  was  a  girl  in  the  family 


188  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

o  There  are  five  females  doing  excellent  work  as  nurses  in 
the  hospital. 

4.  The  teachings  of  Socrates  v.hich  I  have  mentioned,  and  the 
fact  that  he  was  looked  upon  alone  as  a  philosopher  and  a  sophist 
did  not  bring  on  the  catastrophe. 

5.  Appropriate  services  will  be  held  on  that  day  and  during 
the  balance  of  the  week. 

6.  He  lived  in  extenuated  circumstances. 

7.  There  is  hardly  a  day  in  the  year  that  some  large  concern 
does  not  call  on  our  city  buyer,  offering  to  close  out  their  stock 
at  a  great  discount.  We  always  pick  out  the  cream  and 
leave  the  balance  of  the  stuff  for  the  other  fellows.  Come 
this  week  and  see  the  cream  of  bargains  throughout  our 
large  establishment.  And,  by  the  way,  no  matter  how 
little  the  price,  you  can  always  depend  on  getting  depend- 
able clothing  at  the  Golden  Eagle;  we  leave  the  other  stuff 
alone. 

8.  During  the  singing,  the  mourners  seemed  to  be  deeply 
effected. 

9.  There  was  quite  a  large  attendance  at  the  county  cattle 
fair  last  night. 

10.  His  house  is  being  x-iddled  of  its  old  furniture. 

11.  His  delineation  of  the  negro  dialect  is  perfect. 

13.  To  what  baseness  will  he  not  demean  himself? — Thack- 
eray :  Henry  Esmond. 

13.  The  truculent  sycophancy  of  our  nation  toward  foreign 
potentates  is  a  blot  on  our  character. 

14.  The  East  is  very  reticent  to  take  up  new  ideas. 

15.  Harry  Warrington  was  not  faithless  ...  to  that  other 
individual  with  whom,  as  we  have  seen,  the  youth  had  lately 
been  smitten. — Thackeray:  Tlie  Virginians. 

16.  ...  I  did  not  even  care  to  go  and  see  my  Lord  Ferrers 
tried  and  hung. — Thackeray:  The  Virginians. 

17.  The  process  is  evidently  equivalent  to  drowning  a  man  in 
a  slow  and  most  tortuous  manner. 

18.  I  expect  this  is  a  good  day  to  go  down  river. 

19.  They  are  always,  as  I  said,  more  or  less  stupid,  and  can- 
not conceive  of  anj'thing  else  so  nice  as  money. — Ruskin:  The 
Crown  of  Wild  Olive. 

20.  Thougli  I  was  extremely  mad  at  this  A-isit,  yet  I  so  heartily 
rejoiced  at  their  going,  that  I  would  not  suffer  myself  to  think 
gravely  about  it. — Miss  Burney:  Evdina. 


IMPROPRIETIES  189 

21.  They  cleaved  the  whole  tract,  in  contemplation  of  making 
it  a  park. 

22.  That  this  has  been  so  in  one  instance  I  have  the  creditable 
testimony  of  a  well-known  individual. 

23.  I  am  sorry  to  hear  my  honorable  friend  stand  mute. 

24.  Addison  claims  to  take  leading  rank  as  a  moralist.  —Mat- 
thew Arnold:  Essays  ui  Criticism,  First  Series. 

25.  The  automobile  found  no  trouble  in  negotiating  the  very 
steep  hill  it  met. 

2G.  I  have  been  right  busy;  so  I  couldn't  get  the  theme  done. 

27.  Boston  offers  exceptionable  advantages  in  the  way  of 
libraries  and  museums. 

28.  Directly  Ole  Bull  began  to  play,  he  shook  his  long  hair 
over  his  face. 

29.  "The  conversation  of  educated  females  is  like  syllabub,  all 
froth  and  all  sweetness." 

30.  "The  journey  may  be  practical;  any  way, I"ll  risk  it,"  said  he. 

31.  According  to  the  common  acceptance  of  the  word,  this 
man  was  a  traitor. 

32.  I  got  into  the  team  and  drove  off. 

33.  Lack  of  space  forbids  me  treating  even  one  or  two  points 
in  a  thoroughly  concise  manner. 

34.  I  thought  the  tone  of  the  Jungle  Book  would  be  of  the 
same  caliber  as  Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book. 

35.  The  disappearance  of  articles  led  to  the  apprehension  of 
three  juveniles. 

36.  I  thanked  Miss  Smith  very  much  for  being  so  kind  as  to 
learn  us  how  to  cook. 

37.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  parents  of  European  chil- 
dren'exact  a  stronger  authority  over  them  than  American 
parents  do  over  their  children. 

38.  President  Roosevelt  now  assumes  the  duty  of  Cliief  Execu- 
tor of  the  United  States. 

39.  He  never  stopped  long  in  one  place,  but  moved  from  one 
town  to  another  frequently. 

40.  Can  I  have  a  piece  of  pie? 

41.  Can  I  open  the  door? 

42.  If  a  single  word  could  resume  him,  it  would  be  "aca- 
demic."— Dr.  Garnett,  on  Matthew  Arnold  in  the  National  Dic- 
tionary of  Biograjjhy. 

43.  Indeed,  his  pet  aversion,  the  Spanish  Academicians  who 
failed  to  make  him  one  of  their  number,  and  whose  sins  are 


190  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

many,  never  issue.l  a  volume  containing  more  aggravating  slips 
of  the  pen  and  oi'  the  attention  than  occur  in  Mr.  Harisse's 
"Terre-Neuve."— T/ie  Nation,  Vol.  74,  No.  1922. 

E.  Insert  the  correct  word  ("can"  or  "may")  in  the 
hhinks  left  in  the  following  sentences: 

1 I  punish  him  for  that  offense,  Mr.  Robinson? 

2 the  teacher  punish  him  so  effectively  as  to  hinder  h 

second  offense? 

3 we  ask  him  to  come  now,  under  the  circumstances? 

4 we  ask  him  to  come,  please? 

5.  I go  soon.     I  shall  if  I 

6 you  oblige  me  with  a  light? 

7 Yale  beat  Harvard  this  year? 

8 we  not  hold  this  position  against  all? 

F.  Why  are  errors  in  the  use  of  "shall"  and  "will" 
classed  among  improprieties  rather  than  among  mistakes 
in  grammar? 

G.  What  special  meanings  have  "shonld"  and 
"would"? 

H.  What  was  the  original  meaning  of  "shall"?  Of 
"will"? 

/.  Is  it  correct  to  use  "will"  with  the  first  person  in 
questions?  Why?  Give  all  the  rules  for  the  use  of 
"shall"  and  "will"  as  stated  in  the  text. 

,/.  Correct  the  errors  in  the  use  of  "shall"  and  "will," 
"should"  and  "would,"  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
Justify  your  corrections: 

1.  As  long  as  they  continue  to  shun  such  a  life,  so  long  will 
we  continue  to  have  corruption  and  misery. 

2.  I  think  we  will  not  be  able  to  finish  by  six  o'clock. 

3.  I  know  I  will  get  a  better  grade  of  goods  than  this  at  the 
next  store. 

4.  The  question  that  agitated  us  was,  if  the  lake  were  rougli 
would  we  get  sea.sick? 

5.  We  will  never  be  able  to  purify  politics  so  long  as  the  best 
men  will  not  go  to  the  polls.  ^ 

G.  Will  I  go  and  get  the  flowers  for  you? 


IMPROPlilEtlES  191 

7.  "Will  you  be  at  home  to-morrow  afternoon? 

8.  Jane  said  she  would  be  ill  if  she  did  not  get  out  of  doors 
oftener. 

9.  If  we  could  only  get  even  with  them,  we  would  have  the 
inside  track. 

10.  We  will  readily  see  that  the  rule  is  unjust. 

11.  I  had  a  suspicion  that  I  would  not  get  there  on  time. 

12.  Unless  there  is  a  clear  line  of  demarcation  between  these 
classes — the  church  and  the  world — we  willsimply  be  swamped. 

K.  Insert  the  correct  forms — "shall"  or  "will," 
"should"  or  "would" — in  the  blanks  left  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences: 

1.  I not  be  able  to  recite  to-morrow,  if  I  am  as  hoarse 

as  I  was  after  the  last  ball  game. 

2.  Grant's  last  directions  to  his  aide  were:  '"You man- 
age this  with  secrecy  and  dispatch.*' 

3.  We finish  this  piece  of  work,  come  what  may. 

4.  The    expressman    come    for    tlie    trui^ks     at    two 

o'clock. 

5.  If  you  sit  in  that  draught  you take  cold. 

G.  With  determination  in  his  voice  the  old  man  said  :  "They 
suffer  for  this." 

7.  If  we  don't  hurry,  we be  late. 

8.  How  often I  have  to  tell  you  that  you  are  to  come  in 

before  it  is  dark?    You not  go  out  again  after  dinner  this 

week. 

9.  If  I  were  to  revisit  my  old  liome,  I ,  I  know,  find  it 

lamentably  changed. 

10.  He  says  he not  know  the  result  of  the  examination 

for  a  week. 

11.  I  wrote  her  that  if  she come  to  us  now,  we 

be  able  to  make  her  visit  pleasanter  than  it be  later  in  the 

year. 

12.  He  said  he  wished  that  I   be  frank,  but  if  I 

tell  him  just  what  I  thought,  he never  forgive  me. 

13.  The  doctor  said  he be  here  in  an  hour. 

14.  I not  forget  j'our  kindness. 

15.  The  faculty  have  decreed  that  Friday be  a  holiday. 

16.  The  faculty  had  decreed  that  Friday be  a  holiday. 

17.  The  time  is  coming  when  we    find  travel  a  very 

prosaic  tliinf; 


192  COMPOSITION"    AXD    nilETORIC 

18.  He  is  afraid  that  he not  pass  the  examination. 

19.  If  letters  come   during  your  al)sence,    I   forward 

them  to  you? 

20 you  be  in  your  office  between  two  and  three  to-mor- 
row? 

21.  I be  sorry  to  think  that  I  had  lost  my  temper. 

22.  If  my  brother  speak  to  me  as  John  speaks  to  his 

sister,  I resent  it. 

23.  If  I  were  to  go  away, j-ou  be  soi-ry? 

24.  He  saj's  he   be  in  New  York  at  the  time  we  are 

there. 

25 you  feel  the  air  if  I  open  this  window? 

26.  The  salesman  pi-omised  that  the  jiareel be  here  by 

six  o'clock. 

27.  If  the  custom  of  using  check-i'eins be  abolished,  we 

not  be  any  the    worse  for    the    change  and  the    horses 

be  much  more  comfortable. 

28.  If  it rain  we have  to  give  vip  the  picnic. 

29.  Our  cook  is  a  treasure,  and  I  don't  know  what  we 

do  without  her. 

30.  He  said  that,  as  he  was  a  short-distance  runner,  he 

be  foolish  to  enter  for  the  mile  race. 

L.  Explain  the  uses  of  "shall"  and  "will,"  "should," 
and  "would"  in  the  following  extracts: 

1.  How  long  I  shall  love  him  I  can  no  more  tell 
Than,  had  I  a  fever,  when  I  should  be  well. 
My  passion  shall  kill  me  before  I  will  show  it, 
And  yet  I  would  give  all  the  world  did  he  know  it. 

Sm  Georoe  Ethekeoe,  quoted  by  R.  G.  White. 

2.  He  (Montezuma)  begs  only  that  when  he  shall  relate  his 
sufferings  you  will  consider  him  as  an  Indian  prince,  and  not 
expect  any  other  eloquence  from  his  sinqilicity  than  what  his 
griefs  have  furnished  him  withal. — Drydex:  Dedication  of  The 
Indian  Emperor. 

3.  No,  but  there  is  a  delightful  little  boat  which  goes  from 
Antwerp  to  Rotterdam,  taking  the  whole  day  to  wind  in  and  out 
among  the  islands  of  Zeeland,  \>y  means  of  which  you  shall 
see  for  two  guilders  as  much  of  Holland  as  most  people  don't 
see  for  two  hundred.— Git.\CE  Ellery  Ch.vxxing,  in  The  Boston 
Eveniny  Transcript. 


IMPROPRIETIES 


103 


M.  Improprieties  are  often  the  result  of  an  ignorance  of 
the  meaning  of  prefixes.  Below  is  a  list  of  common  Latin 
prefixes,  with  their  English  meanings.  Xame  words  in 
which  each  prefix  occurs,  anci  define  the  words. 


a,  ab — away,  off 

ad — to,  toward 

ambi,  amb — around,  about 

ante — before 

circum — around,  about 

contra — agai  nst 

com  (con,  col,  cor) — together, 
with,  completel3%  thor- 
oughly 

de — down  from,  down,  of 

dis,  di-=-asunder 

e,  ex — out,  forth,  without  (im- 
plying freedom  from) 

extra — beyond 

in  (ig,  il,  im,  ir) — not 

inter — between,  together 


per — through ,  thoroughly; 
(sometimes  in  a  bad  sense, 
breaking  through,  disre- 
garding) 

post — after,  behind 

prae — before 

praeter — before,  bej'ond 

pro — forth,  forward,  before, 
for 

re,  red — back,  again,  in  return 

sed,  se — apart,  aside 

super — over,  upon,  above 

trans — across,  through,  com- 
pletely 

ultra — beyond,  across 


CHAPTER   XII 

GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

82.  The   Sense   in   Which   Grammar   Is    Here   Used. — 

"Grammar,"  says  the  author  of  a  recent  text-book  on 
that  subject,  "is  a  systematic  description  of  the  essential 
principles  of  a  language  or  a  group  of  languages."*  He 
divides  grammar  into  orthoepy  (pronunciation),  orthog- 
raphy (spelling),  classification  of  words,  inflection,  and 
syntax.  Of  these  five  divisions,  rhetoric,  which  is  con- 
cerned mainly  with  the  relation  of  words  in  sentences, 
deals  wnth  but  two — inflection,  or  the  changes  in  the 
forms  of  words  to  indicate  their  various  grammatical  rela- 
tions; and  syntax,  or  the  rules  governing  the  combination 
of  words  into  sentences.  For  the  purposes  of  this  chapter, 
grammar  may  be  used  as  the  equivalent  of  inflection  and 
syntax,  and  defined  as  good  use  in  sentence  construction. 
Grammatical  errors,  or  solecisms,  are  then,  like  bar- 
barisms and  improprieties,  violations  of  good  use. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  statement  of  the  principal 
solecisms,  three  general  statements  may  be  made: 

1.  A  sentence,  as  we  have  learned,  is  the  expression  of 
a  complete  thought  by  means  of  words  that  are  united 
grammatically.  Hence,  the  use  of  phrases  or  dependent 
clauses  as  sentences  is  ungrammatical.^  For  a  more 
extended  treatment  of  this  point,  see  section  24. 

2.  The  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word  belongs  is  settled 
by  its  construction,  and  the  same  word  may  at  one  time 

•  Professor  G.  R.  Carpenter,  Principles  of  English  Grammar. 

9  A  related  fault,  not  strictly  speaking  a  solecism,  is  the  use  in  writing  of 
sentences  declarative  in  meaning  and  punctuation,  but  exclamatory  in 
form  ;  e.g.,  "He's  such  a  rich  man,"  and  "Milton  loved  only  the  sublime  and 
Ms ld£als  are  so  high." 

194 


GRAMMAR — GOOD   USE    IN   THE   SENTENCE  195 

be  a  verb,  at  another  an  adjective  or  a  noun.  For 
instance,  in  "Early  rising  is  a  good  thing,"  "rising"  is  a 
noun  used  as  a  simple  subject;  in  "He  was  rising  slowly 
when  he  fired,"  it  is  a  verbal  adjective  used  with  the 
copula  "was"  to  form  the  simple  predicate. 

3.  A  group  of  words  may  be  grammatically  the  equiva- 
lent of  a  single  part  of  speech.  Failure  to  remember  this 
produces  solecisms.  For  instance,  "Excuse  me  being 
here,"  is  wrong,  because  "being  here"  is  structurally  a 
noun,  and  takes  an  adjective  modifier.  The  sentence 
should  read,  "Excuse  my  being  here." 

A  list  of  the  commoner  solecisms  follows.  The  rules 
given  are  important,  and  should  be  learned.  But  it  is 
useless  to  memorize  a  grammatical  rule  unless  its  applica- 
tion is  understood.  The  student  should  analyze  carefully 
all  the  illustrativG  sentences. 

83.  Nouns. — 1.  Verbal  Nouns  Confused  with  Parti- 
ciples.— The  verbal  noun  in  "ing"  should  not  be  used  as 
if  it  were  a  participle.  In  "Julia's  mother  does  not 
approve  of  Julia  going  to  college,"  "going"  is  a  verbal 
noun,  and  "Julia"  should  be  the  possessive  noun  (i.  e., 
the  adjective)  "Julia's."  A  similar  rule  holds  for  pro- 
nouns; "There  is  danger  of  him  missing  the  train," 
should  be,  "There  is  danger  of  his  missing  the  train. "^ 
Scan  such  constructions  carefully  to  see  whether  the  ques- 
tionable word  is  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun. 

2.  The  Possessive  in  "  's"  and  the  Possessive  Phrase 
with  "o/. " — The  possessive  form  in  "  's"  should  not  be 
used  of  inanimate  objects.  To  speak  of  the  "house's 
roof,"  "the  hat's  top,"  "New  York's  mayor,"  amounts  to 
a  weak  and  objectionable  personification  of  inanimate 
nouns.  Say  "the  roof  of  the  house,"  "the  top  of  the 
hat,"  "the  mayor  of  New  York."     Exceptions  are :    (1) 


'  The  construction  here  condemned  is  in  much  wider  and  better  use  in 
England  than  in  America. 


196  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

established  personifications,  such  as  "the  ship's  side"; 
(2)  idiomatic  plirases,  such  as  "for  mercy's  sake,"  "for 
conscience'  sake";  (3)  genitives  of  measure,  such  as  "the 
day's  work,"  "a  year's  pay,"  "a  span's  breadth." 

3.  False  Plurals.— In  using  foreign  nouns,  the  careless 
writer  is  likely  to  use  the  singular  for  the  plural,  and 
vice  versa.  The  plurals  of  the  words  given  below  should 
be  looked  up  in  the  dictionary  and  memorized : 

cherub  animalcule  seraph 

phenomenon  dictum  stratum 

bacterium  curriculum  alumna 

erratum  '    tableau  datum 

fungus  addendum  terminus 

alumnus 

Some  words — e.  g.,  "necropolis"  and  "metropolis" — 
occur  only  in  the  singular.  Some  words  which  occur  in 
but  one  form  are  used,  now  in  the  singular,  now  in  the 
plural;  e.  g.,  "ethics,"  "politics,"  "athletics,"  "mathe- 
matics." But  modern  usage  inclines  "to  treat  words  in 
'  'ics'  (except  perhaps  'athletics')  as  singular.''^ 

84.  Pronouns. — 1.  Errors  in  Case. — Unlike  the  English 
noun,  the  English  pronoun  has  still  enough  inflection  to 
produce  frequent  errors  in  case.  The  uneducated  man 
says,  "Me  and'  him  is  here."  The  half -educated  fre- 
quently says  correctly,  "Between  you  and  mo,"  and  then, 
fearful  of  having  made  a  mistake,  sliifts  hurriedly  to  the 
incorrect  "Between  you  and  I."  Even  the  educated  man 
frequently  puts  a  pronoun  in  the  wrong  case,  forgetting 
for  the  moment  its  relation  to  the  other  words  in  the  sen- 
tence. So,  "If  I  were  he"  becomes  the  incorrect  "If  I 
were  him."  Again,  "I  could  not  punish  the  boy,  who  T 
saw  to  be  a  cripple,"  is  wrong,  because  the  relative,  being 
the  subject  of  the  infinitive  "to  be,"  should  be  in  the 
objective  case.     Wiien  in  doubt  about  the  case  of  a  pro- 

» Professor  A.  S.  Hill,  The  FnundaUons  of  Rhetoric. 


GRAMMAK — GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE  197 

noun,  consider  its  relation  to  the  verb  or  the  preposition 
with  which  it  belongs. 

2.  '■'■Some''^  for  ^^  some  what.'''' — The  pronoun  "some"  is 
often  incorrectly  used  for  the  adverb  "somewhat."  "He 
is  so?ne  better"  should  be,  "He  is  someiohat  better." 

85.  Verbs. — 1.  Mistakes  in  tlte  Principal  Parts  of 
Verbs. — The  use  of  a  past  tense  for  a  present,  of  a  past 
participle  for  an  indicative  verb,  and  of  a  wrongly  formed 
part  of  the  verb,  are  errors  too  gross  to  need  much  com- 
ment. "He  done  it  well,"  "He  come  into  the  room," 
and  "He  dove  down  rapidly,"  are  cases  in  point.  The 
student  should  memorize  the  principal  parts  of  "prove," 
"do,"  "come,"  "overflow,"  "begin,"  "bid,"  "dive," 
"get.  "^  "Hadn't  ought"  for  "ought  not  to"  is  an  espe- 
cially objectionublG  vulgarism.  ' 'Ought' '  is  a  defective  verb 
with  but  two  forms — "ought"  and  the  archaic  "ought- 
est" — both  of  which  are  always  either  present  or  past 
tenses.  In  "hadn't  ought, "  "ought"  is  improperly  used 
as  a  past  participle. 

2.  '  TliG  Split  lufiniticc. — The  insertion  of  a  word 
between  "to,"  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  and  the  verb 
itself,. as  in  "to  swiftly  run,"  is  properly  a  bit  of  clumsi- 
ness rather  than  a  solecism.  Indeed,  many  writers  whose 
grammar  is  above  reproach  commit  this  fault.  It  is 
placed  in  this  chapter  because  it  has  been  so  long 
accounted  a  solecism,  and  because  no  chapter  in  this  book 
deals  with  clumsiness.  Note  the  awkwardness  in  saying, 
"The  pilgrims  decide  to  each  toll  two  tales." 

3.  The  Use  of  tlie  Indicative  for  the  /Subjunctive. — Eng- 
lish has  lost  so  many  of  its  inflectional  endings  that  the 
distinction  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  is 
nearly  gone.  Indeed,  only  the  present  subjunctive  of  the 
verb  "to  be"  has  preserved  the  subjunctive  forms  in  all 
three  persons.     In  the  past  subjunctive  of  "to  bo"  and  in 

1  See  also  "Ue,"  "lay,"  "sit,"  "set,"  section  7-1. 


198  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

both  subjunctive  tenses  of  all  other  verbs  the  only  differ- 
ences in  form  from  the  indicative  are  in  the  archaic 
second  person  singular  and  in  the  third  person  singu- 
lar, where,  for  instance,  "He  goes"  is  the  indicative, 
"If  he  go"  the  subjunctive.  Yet  there  remains  a  distinc- 
tion in  meaning  which  good  Avriters  strive  to  preserve. 
AVhen  the  condition  is  one  contrary  to  fact,  the  subjunc- 
tive form  is  the  better.  In  "If  I  had  your  ability,  1 
should  not  stay  here,"  "had"  is  subjunctive,  even  though 
the  form  is  not  different  from  the  indicative  fonu. 
Write,  "If  I  were  3'ou,"  not,  "If  I  was  you."  On  the 
other  baud,  when  "if"  introduces  a  supposition  con- 
ceived of  as  an  actual  fact,  use  the  indicative.  Write, 
"If  it  is  bad  to  spend  money  loosely,  it  is  equally  bad  to 
spend  time  loosely,"  because  you  mean  that  it  is  cer- 
tainly bad  to  sjiend  money  loosely.  Again,  we  write  cor- 
rectly, "If  he  was  there,  I  must  have  seen  him,"  our  mean- 
ing being,  "I  suppose  he  really  was  there."  It  must  bo 
noticed  further  that  there  is  a  difference  in  meaning 
between  the  present  and  the  past  subjunctive.  "If  it  be 
right"  implies  that  it  is  j)ossibly  or  even  probably  right. 
"If  it  were  right"  implies  that  it  is  probably  not  right. 
The  question  is  entirely  one  of  meaning. 

The  subjunctive  is  seldom  improperly  used  for  the 
itulicative,  but  the  indicative  is  often  used  wlien  the  sab- 
junctive  Avoiild  be  the  more  strictly  correct  form. 

86.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. — 1.  ""These"''  and  ^^f/iose'''' 
for  ''this''  and  "Mft/J."— "These"  and  "those"  are  plural ; 
"this"  and  "that,"  singular.  With  "kind,"  "class," 
"species"  (as  a  singular),  "genus,"  "sort,"  and  all  other 
collective  nouns  singular  in  form,  the  use  of  "these"  or 
"those"  is  ungrammatical.  Say  "this  kind,"  "that  kind," 
"this  class,"  "that  class,"  "this  sort,"  "that  sort." 

2.  The  Use  of  the  Superlative  for  the  Comparative-  ■ 
The  comparative  form  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  should  be 


GRAMMAK — GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE  li?0 

used  when  there  are  only  two  objects,  and  hence  only  one 
possible  difference  in  degree.  "Of  her  two  tall  sons,  the 
youngest  is  the  tallest,"  should  be,  "Of  her  two  tall  sons, 
the  younger  is  the  taller."  "Between  Harvard  and  Yale 
there  is  not  much  to  choose,  but  Harvard  grows  the  most 
rapidly,"  should  be,  "Between  Harvard  and  Yale  there 
is  not  much  to  choose,  but  Harvard  grows  the  more 
rapidly."  Similarly,  one  should  not  speak  of  "the  last 
of  two,"  since  "last"  is  superlative. 

3.  ^^Hardhf  and  ^'"scarcely''''  with  a  Negative. — "He 
couldn't  do  it  scarcely"  and  "He  oughtn't  to  go  hardly," 
are  samples  of  an  illiterate  but  not  uncommon  blunder. 
Do  not  use  "hardly"  or  "scarcely"  with  a  negative. 

4.  Adjectives  Used  for  Adverbs,  and  Vice  Versa. — In 
English,  adjectives  modify  nouns,  and  adverbs  modify 
verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs.  Yet  "real"  for 
"very" — e.  g.,  "He's  real  good  to  me" — though  incor- 
rect, is  common.  Again,  when  an  adjective  ends  in  "y" 
(or  "ly")  the  careless  often  use  it  as  an  adverb,  as  in 
"He  dresses  well  but  not  gaudy."  Sometimes  an  adverb 
is  used  for  an  adjective,  as  in  "his  then  wife"  and  "the 
almost  murderer  of  my  mother."^  The  commonest 
improper  use  of  the  "adverb  is  its  substitution  for  a  predi- 
cate adjective.  We  should  write,  "The  rose  smells 
sweet,"  not  "sweetly,"  because  in  this  sentence  "sweet" 
does  not  modify  the  verb,  but  the  noun;  it  does  not 
describe  the  action  of  smelling,  but  a  quality  of  the  rose, 
and  hence  must  be  an  adjective.  Similarly,  we  say,  "He 
feels  gentle,"  because,  "He  feels  gently,"  means  that  he 
performs  the  action  of  feeling  in  a  gentle  manner.'^ 

1  Crockett,  The  Me  of  the  Winds. 

'In  "I'm  not  feeling  well"  and  "His  coat  looks  well  on  him,"  "well"  is 
an  adjective. 

In  America,  the  regular  English  idiom,  "He  feels  bad,"  has  apparently 
given  place  to  "He  feels  badly,"  perhaps  because  of  a  notion  that  "He  feels 
bad"  is  ambiguously  suggestive  of  a  feeling  of  wickedness.  "Feels  badly"  is 
often  objected  to  as  a  colloquialism  for  "feels  ill," 


200  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Among  the  verbs  which  always  take  a  predicate  adjec- 
tive are  "be"  and  "become."  Among  those  which, 
according  to  the  meaning,  take  either  a  predicate  adjec- 
tive or  an  adverb,  are  "grow,"  "get,"  "turn,"  "remain," 
"stay,"  "continue,"  "seem,"  "appear,"  "look," 
"sound,"  "smell,"  "feel,"  "taste,"  "stand,"  "sit,"  etc.^ 

87.  Lack  of  Agreement  in  Number. — 1.  Subject  and 
Predicate. — a.  It  ouglit  to  be  needless  to  remind  the  stu- 
dent that  "He  don't,"  "We  was,"  and  all  similar  uses 
of  plural  subjects  with  singular  verbs  are  wrong. ^  "When, 
however,  the  subject  is  separated  from  the  verb  by  a 
plural  word,  it  is  easy  to  slip  into  making  the  verb  plural; 
so  in  the  sentence,  "The  state  of  affairs  are  such  that 
wo  ought  to  protest,"  "affairs"  has  forced  "state"  out 
of  the  writer's  mind  and  driven  the  verb  into  the  plural. 
In  revising  written  work,  always  look  carefully  at  long 
sentences  to  see  that  the  verb  and  the  subject,  be  it  noun 
or  pronoun,  agree  in  number. 

l).  A  parenthetical  phrase  coming  after  a  singular  sub- 
ject frequently  leads  one  into  using  a  plural  verb  incor- 
rectly. In  tlie  sentence,  "The  president,  with  all  his  cab- 
inet, are  here,"  "with  all  his  cabinet"  is  an  adjective 
phrase;  it  has  no  inllucnce  on  the  number  of  the  subject, 
and  "are"  should  1)0  "is." 

c.  A  collective  noun  takes  a  i)lural  verb  when  the  group 
indicated  by  the  noun  is  considered  as  a  collection  of  indi- 
vidual objects;    it  takes  a  singular  verb  when  the  collec- 


1  Whitney,  iu  his  EssaiiiaUof  F.mjlhh  Grammar  (page  160)  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  with  verbs  of  motion  and  condition  "the  qualifying  force  of 
the  predicate  adjective  is  vei-y  often  really  distributed  between  the  subject 
and  the  verb,"— e.g.,  "He  stands  lirm,'V'The  sun  shines  bright,"  "  He  comes 
running."  "An  adjective  thus  used,"  he  says,  "  may  be  distinguished  as  an 
ad\'erbial  predicate. " 

■^  Wlicn  the  subject  consists  of  two  nouns  which  are  really  parts  of  the 
same  idea,  English  usage  allows  the   use  of  a  singular   verb.     Kipling's 

"The  shouting  and  the  tumult  dies" 
is  a  case  in  ijoiui.    But  the  student  may  well  disregard  such  subtleties  for 
the  present. 


GRAMMAR — GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE  201 

tion  of  objects  is  considered  as  forming  one  unit.  Both 
of  the  following  sentences  are  right.  "The  audience  was 
lield  by  the  tragedian's  art  as  if  it  were  one  man.  When 
he  ceased,  his  audience  were  free  to  go  their  ways." 

(/.  "Either,"  "neither,"  used  as  distributive  conjunc- 
tions require  a  singular  verb;  e.  g.,  "Neither  Mr.  White 
nor  Mr.  Brown  is  in  the  office." 

e.  When  the  words  "each,"  "either,"  and  "neither" 
are  used  as  pronouns,  they  take  singular  verbs:  "Each  of 
the  men  is  ready ;  neither  is  carefully  placed."  "None" 
(originally  "no-one")  and  "all"  maybe  either  singular  or 
plural;  e.  g.,  "All  is  done,  and  now  all  of  us  are 
ready." 

2.  Pronoun  and  Antecedent. — a.  Every  singular  antece- 
dent prescribes  a  singular  pronoun.  So  we  say,  "Every- 
one gave  his  mite  freely,"  and,  "It  sounded  as  if 
somebody  was  breathing  hard  through  his  nose."  Con- 
versely, every  plural  antei-edent  prescribes  a  plural  pro- 
noun and  a  plural  verb;  e.  g.,  "His  lecture  was  one  of  the 
weakest  that  have  been  heard  in  this  hall."  Here  "lec- 
tures" is  understood  after  "weakest,"  and  hence  "that" 
and  "have"  must  be  plural. 

h.  "Either"  can  not  properly  be  used  for  "any,"  or 
"neither"  for  "none."  "Either"  and  "neither"  are 
singular.  When  only  two  objects  are  mentioned, 
"either"  or  "neither"  is  used;  when  more  than  two, 
"any"  or  "none."  The  following  sentences  are  right: 
"Either  of  the  two  men  could  have  taken  any  of  the  three 
courses;  they  took  none  of  them,  but  remained  in  inac- 
tivity. Neither  of  the  two  men  is  excusable."  Had  it 
been  "any  of  the  two  men  could"  or  "took  neither  of 
them,"  the  sentences  would  have  been  incorrect. 

88.  False  Correlations  of  the  Double  Conjunctions. — The 
correct  pairs  of  conjunctive  particles  are  "either  .  .  . 
or,"  "neither  .   .   .   nor."     It  is  wrong  to  write,  as  Dry- 


203  COMPOSITION^    AND    EHETORIC 

den  does,  "For  they  Avho  have  never  heard  of  you  can 
neither  love  or  hate  you." 

89.  Omission  of  "a"  or  "the." — There  seems  to  be  a 
conspiracy  among  careless  writers  against  the  article ;  we 
often  see,  "The  old  and  young  woman  went  away,"  when 
two  persons  departed,  and,  "The  fire  destroyed  a  house 
and  office  of  Mr.  Smith's,"  when  the  house  was  in  one 
block  and  the  office  in  another.  When  there  are  two 
nouns  referring  to  two  distinct  objects,  or  when  two 
adjectives  make  it  evident  that  there  is  a  second  noun 
understood,  as  in  "an  old  woman  and  a  young  (woman)," 
repeat  the  article.  On  the  other  hand,  when,  as  may  ])e 
the  case  with  "the  cashier  and  teller,"  you  mean  that  one 
person  holds  both  offices,  omit  the  second  article. 

90.  Omission  of  Words  Necessary  to  the  Sense. — Words 
necessary  to  the  sense  are  sometimes  omitted.  Often,  as 
in  the  sentence,  "lie  used  to  go  nutting  every  fall,  and  at 
times  got  a  good  many,"  the  word  omitted  is  found  in  the 
sentence  as  a  part  of  some  other  word.  The  last  half  of 
the  sentence  should  read,  "and  at  times  got  a  good  many 
nuts."  Often,  as  in,  "I  never  have  gone  there  and  never 
shall,"  the  part  of  the  verb  used  is  made  to  do  duty  for 
another  and  wholly  different  part :  here,  the  only  form  of 
the  verb  we  have  a  right  to  understand  is  "have  gone"; 
but  "shall  have  gone  there"  would  bo  nonsense.  The 
sentence  should  bo,  "I  never  have  gone  there,  and  never 
shall  go  there."  A  third  variety  of  this  error  consists  in 
the  omission  of  a  phrase  (usually  a  prepositional  phrase). 
"He  greets  everyone  with  the  same  pleasant  smile  he 
greets  us,"  should  be,  "lie  greets  everyone  with  the  same 
pleasant  smile  with  whicli  he  greets  us."  Errors  of  this 
sort  are  manifold. 

91.  "Whicli,"  Used  with  a  Phrase  or  a  Clause  as  Its 
Antecedent. — Some  good  authors  make  "which"  refer  to 
a  phrase  or  a  clause  as  its  antecedent,  but  the  strictest 


GRAMMAR — GOOD   USE   IN    THE   SENTENCE  203 

usage  is  against  this  practice.  "He  wasn't  long  there — 
which  makes  me  think  he  got  an  unfavorable  reception," 
becomes,  according  to  this  rule,  "He  wasn't  long  there,  a 
fact  which,"  etc.  The  student  will  easily  recall  the  many 
words, — "a  fact,"  "a  thing,"  "a  process" — which  serve 
to  fill  out  the  gap  in  such  sentences.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  rule  will  long  remain  effective. 

92.  Misuse  of  "and." — "And"  frequently  intrudes  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  spoil  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 
The  commonest  form  of  this  error  is  the  "and  wliich"  con- 
struction; e.  g.,  "There  were  several  cart-loads  of  bricks 
dumped  on  the  lawn  and  which  had  to  be  sorted."  Here 
"and"  is  superfluous.  "And"  rightly  employed  connects 
two  statements  of  equal  grammatical  rank. 

93.  Double  Subject  and  Object. — The  sentence,  "John, 
who  was  here  just  now,  he  went  to  town  to  buy  a  hat,"  is 
a  gross  example  of  an  error  only  too  common  in  the  work 
of  careless  writers — the  use  of  a  double  subject.  In  the 
second  of  the  following  sentences  occurs  the  similar  fault 
of  the  use  of  a  double  object: 

In  the  same  manner  did  these  young  adders  attempt  to  bite 
before  their  fangs  were  in  being.  The  dam,  however,  was  fur- 
nished with  very  formidable  ones,  ichich  we  lifted  up  (for  they 
fold  down  when  not  used),  and  cut  them  off  with  the  point  of 
our  scissors. — Gilbert  White:  Natural  History  of  Selhome. 

Exercise  XII 

A.  Define  the  sentence.  Define  grammar:  (a)  in  its 
widest  sense,  (b)  as  the  word  is  used  in  this  chapter. 

B.  Show  by  illustration  how  a  given  word  may  some- 
times be  one  part  of  speech,  sometimes  another.  Show 
how  a  group  of  words  may  be  the  grammatical  equivalent 
of  a  part  of  speech. 

C.  Give  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  text  for  the  use  of 
the  possessive. 


204  C03IP0SITI0X    AXD    KnETORIC 

D.  Give  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  subjunctive. 

E.  How  do  you  know  when  to  use  a  predicate  adjective? 

F.  Give  the  rules  for  deciding  the  number  of  collective 
nouns. 

G.  Distinguish  in  meaning  between:  (a)  "He  looks 
well,"  "He  looks  good" ;  (b)  "Ho  feels  warm,"  "He  feels 
warmly." 

H.  Point  out  and  correct  the  solecisms  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Thei'e  has  been  as  great  or  more  of  a  tendency  recently 
than  there  was  formerly  to  groui^  as  many  tenements  as  possible 
under  one  roof. 

2.  Throughout  the  entire  city  but  few  cases  have  been  found 
where  the  greatest  care  consistent  with  its  use  is  not  given  to 
elevators  in  constant  operation. 

3.  The  cavalry,  horseless  as  yet,  is  1,030  strong,  but  from  the 
present  outlook  expect  to  recruit  up  to  1,200. 

4.  If  anybody  will  pay  for  their  own  telescope,  and  resolve 
another  nebula,  we  cackle  over  the  discernment  as  if  it  were  our 
own. — RusKiN:  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

r-).  Neither  he  or  I  saw  tlie  accident. 

G.  I  asked  him  how  he  was,  and  he  said  he  felt  bad. 

7.  He  did  not  seem  to  grasp  tlie  fact's  significance. 

8.  Burke  implies  that  he  don't  see  why  Englishmen  should 
blame  descendants  of  Englishmen  for  acting  according  to 
English  principles. 

9.  The  polished  floor  was  so  slippery  that  he  couldn't  keep 
hi-;  balance  on  it  hardly. 

10.  He  WHS  one  of  those  kind  of  men  who  are  angry  if  they 
have  to  repeat  a  remark. 

11.  A  rumor  reached  me  too  of  Judge  Pyncheon  being 
missed. — Hawthorne:  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

12.  Far  from  the  ragged  crowd  of  the  usual  gallery '"rush," 
the  gallery  patrons  of  grand  opera  are  almost  exclusively  of  the 
cultured  class. 

13.  A  slight  illness  has,  and  I  fear  will,  confine  me  to  my 
room  for  a  few  days. 

14.  We  mu.stn't  crack  Gaddy's  head  any  more  than  it  is. — 
KiPLINO;   The  Sforif  of  the  Gadsbi/s. 

15.  She  was  a  fat  old  woman,  this  Mrs.  Gamp,  with  a  husky 


GRAMMAR — GOOD    USI:    IK   THE   SEXTENCE  205 

voice  ami  ;i  moist  ej'e,  whicli  she  had  the  remarkable  power  of 
turning  up  and  only  showing  the  white  of  it. — Dickens  : 
Martin  CUuzzlewit. 

16.  When  the  cross-examination  came,  the  witness  begun 
to  cry. 

17.  This  dicta  seemed  to  him  very  severe. 

18.  Tlie  pupil  will  soon  take  pride  in  the  room's  appearance. 

19.  Thoughts  which  go  together  must  be  orderlj^  grouped  to 
build  up  the  paragraph's  structure. 

20.  He  even  went  so  far  in  his  generosity  as  to  pay  the  bill  of 
a  fellow  traveler  who  he  had  never  seen  before. 

21.  Excuse  me  helping  myself  first,  but  I  was  afraid  there 
wouldn't  be  enough  to  go  around. 

22.  Number  the  answers  as  the  questions  are. 

23.  Burke  stated  that  Lord  North's  plan  would  produce  an 
endless  quarrel  among  the  colonies  and  bring  tilings  to  a  worse 
stand  than  they  were  then. 

24.  Caedmon  paraphrased  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

25.  I  chose  the  thickest  of  the  two  because  I  thought  it  would 
wear  the  best. 

26.  "Do  not  all  Americans  whittle?"  he  asked  mischievously. 
"I  never  have,"  I  replied  smiling. 

"I  thought  they  were  never  happy  unless  they  were." — E.  S. 
de  G.  Tompkins:  Through  David's  Realm. 

27.  The  sources  of  the  oil  are  almost  always  found  at  the  foot 
or  parallel  to  the  mountain  chains. 

28.  Wahb  put  in  his  foot  and  found  it  (the  spring)  was  quite 
warm,  and  that  it  felt  pleasantly  on  his  skin. — Ernest  Seton- 
Thompson:  The  Biography  of  a  Grizzly. 

29.  A  Prince  Rupert  dro])  is  a  small  piece  of  glass,  shaped  like 
an  incandescent  lamp,  which,  if  the  smalle.st  piece  of  the  tail  be 
snipped  off,  the  drop  flies  into  a  fine  dust  with  explosive 
violence. 

30.  [My  experience  with  the  Smith  Agency  in  sectu-ing  this 
position  warrants  me  in  recoinmending  it  highly.]  Mr.  Smith's 
wide  acquaintance  with  superintendents  and  principals  and 
with  the  rank  of  schools,  and  his  experience  the  last  twelve 
years  as  manager  of  an  agenc}',  enables  him  to  be  of  great  assist- 
a;ice  to  those  seeking  positions. 

31.  As  I  have  previously  pointed  out,  the  storage  of  inflam- 
mable or  waste  material  in  places  or  under  conditions  which 
make  them   a  menace  to  the  surrounding  property,  should  be 


20G  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

taken  and  considered  whenever  proven,  as  a  ease  of  criminal 
negligence  or  carelessness,  and  should  by  law  be  made  to  suffer 
accordingly. 

32.  The  looking-glass,  the  polished  globes  of  the  andirons, 
and  all  other  reflecting  surface.s,  continually  present  us  with 
l)ortraits,  or  rather  ghosts,  of  ourselves,  which  we  glance  at  and 
straiglitway  forget  them.  —  H.ywthorne:  Tlie  Prophetic 
Pictures. 

33.  His  desire  to  please  will  be  amj^ly  demonstrated  if 
favored  with  a  share  of  your  patronage  which  he  earnestly 
solicits. 

34.  Mrs.  Walker's  condition  is  as  good  or  better  than  it  has 
been  since  the  accident. 

35.  I  felt  that  I  was  giving  her  another  still  more  acceptable, 
and  which  she  as  promptly  adopted. — Henry  James. 

36.  Though  having  written  previously  a  number  of  short  and 
pleasant  stories,  this  book  attracted  unusual  attention  as  an 
earnest  of  what  the  author  could  do. — J.  H.  Patton,  in  the 
Appendix  to  Brooke's  Primer  of  English  Literature. 

37.  The  sisters  Susan  and  Anna  Warner  have  also  laboured 
successfully.  Commencing  with  The  Wide,  M'ide  World,  they 
have  continued  to  write  many  others. — Ibid. 

38.  It  is  at  best  but  the  school  exercise  of  a  young  poet  learn- 
ing to  write,  and  who  reproduces  in  his  copy  book,  the  copy  that 
has  been  set  him  at  the  page's  head. — Lowell:  Cambridge  Edi- 
tion. Vol.  II,  p.  132. 

39.  She  is  but  changing  her  headgear,  replied  a  female 
attendant,  with  as  much  confidence  as  the  favorite  lady's  maid 
usually  answers  the  master  of  a  modern  family. — Scott  : 
Ivcndioe. 

40.  So  carefully  had  he  planned  his  work  that  only  one 
addenda  was  necessary. 

41.  The  path,  winding  and  shady,  and  which  ran  through  the 
middle  of  the  garden,  was  often  traveled  by  the  old  grand- 
father. 

42.  The  man,  whom  I  found  was  an  honest-looking  person, 
said  he  had  been  out  of  work  for  three  months. 

43.  The  night  was  concluded  in  the  manner  sve  began  the 
morning. — GOLDSMITH:   The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

44.  It  was  not  my  sister  but  me  that  finally  solved  the 
difficulty. 

45.  This  dog  always  showed  the  edge  of  his  tongue  at  the  side 


GRAMMAR — GOOD    USE   I^T   THE    SENTENCE  207 

of  his  mouth,   like  a  i:)ink  rose  leaf,  which  made  him  look  very 
coquettishly. 

46.  A  friend  and  mj'self  spent  part  of  one  day  last  summer  at 
Niagara. 

47.  A  person  seeking  the  medium  of  an  exchange  like  ours, 
when  he  compares  the  expense  of  an  individual  hunt  for  a  place, 
he  can  see  the  economy  of  using  our  agency. 

48.  If  he  was  a  little  broader  in  the  shoulders,  he  would  have 
a  fine  figure. 

49.  Anthropological  data  in  the  hands  of  pseudo-scientists 
has  resulted  in  flooding  the  market  with  generalizations. — 
Nation,  April  10,  1903. 

50.  Tlie  present  laws  require  that  a  person  must  live  in  tlie 
state  only  one  year  before  they  may  petition  for  a  divorce. 

51.  Another  reason  is  because  when  I  grow  up  and  if  I  get 
married,  I  could  cook  his  meals  so  it  would  not  cost  them  so 
much  as  to  buy  them  cooked. 

52.  These  are  the  two  main  reasons  for  a  man  being  thought 
of  as  a  professional  athlete. 

53.  Take  the  College  Refectory,  which  in  its  corps  of  waiters 
three-fourths  of  them  are  athletes. 

54.  Pardon  me  reaching  in  front  of  you. 

55.  These  kind  of  patent  egg-beaters  are  not  so  good  after  all 
as  the  old-fashioned  fork  your  mother  used  to  use. 

56.  The  strength  of  Stephen's  features  were  in  hers. — Winston 
Churchill:  The  Crisis. 

57.  If  I  was  him,  I'd  refuse  to  stand  such  treatment. 

58.  Try  stamp-collecting  yourself.  Spend  as  much  time, 
money,  and  thouglit  upon  it  as  I  have,  and  you  will  soon  find 
yourself  a  victim  of  its  mysterious  charm. 

59.  His  then  wife  was  an  invalid,  and  spent  her  winters  in 
Florida. 

60.  Beside  the  swineherd,  for  such  was  Gurth's  occupation, 
was  seated,  upon  one  of  the  fallen  Druidical  monuments,  a  per- 
son about  ten  years  younger  in  appearance,  and  whose  dre.ss, 
though  resembling  his  companion's  in  form,  was  of  better 
materials,  and  of  a  more  fantastic  description. — Scott:  Ivanhoe. 

61.  His  office-hours  never  varied,  and  he  kept  himself  under  as 
rigid  discipline  as  he  expected  his  men.  He  is  such  a  very  fair- 
minded  man. 

62.  The  Liberal  government  is  furnished  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  form  a  strong  cabinet  with  Lord  Rosebery  at  its  head, 


208  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

whom  the  European  powers  consider  can  be  trusted  to  make 
peace  as  soon  as  possible. 

63.  The  sister  is  not  at  all  strong.     She  looks  bad,  I  think. 

64.  The  dip  of  these  stratums  is  very  great. 

65.  Johnson  is  so  artificial  a  writer.  We  seldom  read  him  for 
amusement. 

66.  There  is  nothing  in  the  realm  of  botany  more  puzzling 
than  this  phenomena. 

67.  Elinor  says  that  her  new  gown  fits  just  lovely. 

68.  Slie  thinks  it  is  smart  to  dress  very  English. 

69.  She  had  only  one  brief  memoranda  of  the  subject. 

70.  Celia  loved  Rosalind  far  too  well  to  ever  leave  her. 

71.  The  maid  told  the  visitor  that  her  mistress  hadn't  hardly 
been  gone  five  minutes. 

72.  Is  it  not  possible  to  honorably  say :  Let  us  have  peace? 

73.  The  more  important  rules,  definitions,  and  observations, 
and  which  are  therefore  the  most  pi'oper  to  be  committed  to 
memory,  are  printed  with  a  large  type. — Murray's  Gr(()]n)iar. 

74.  I  will  now  try  to  sliow  that  the  i3resent  system  of  the 
divorce  laws  in  Rhode  Island  is  lax,  and  that  from  this  evils 
result.  Also  that  the  recommendation  of  the  committee  will  if 
adopted  improve  the  present  conditions. 

75.  Goldsmith  shook  his  head  doubtfully,  and  said  he  would 
try  and  hope  for  the  best.— F.  F.  Moore :  Tlie  Jessamy  Bride. 

76.  From  this  position  the  harbor  presented  an  entirely  differ- 
ent appearance  than  it  did  outside. 

77.  To  him  the  politician  dictated  whom  should  be  appointed 

to  office. 

78.  As  I  have  said,  the  state  paid  no  attention  to  these  kind  of 

facts. 

79.  Of  course  they  are  not  supposed,  nor  do  I  think  they 
will  use,  this  pouer  in  a  tyrannical  manner,  as  some  have 
alleged. 

80.  A  careful  consideration  of  these  duties  of  this  committee 
do  not  give  them  the  least  autliority  for  makii)<;-  any  such 
investigation. 

81.  No  one  seems  to  have  been  willing  to  assume  the  responsi- 
bility nor  to  make  any  strenuous  effort  to  suppress  the  evils. 

83.  He  doesn't  need  to  swear  to  anything  in  the  petition. 
Merely  signs  it  and  the  court  is  satisfied. 

83.  Now  if  the  state  see  that  the  city,  her  agent,  to  whom  she 
lias  given  these  powers  do  not  govern  her  police  properly,  she 


GRAMMAR — GOOD    USE    TN"    THE    RKXTF.NTR  -209 

had  the   right    to    assume  control  and    manage   them  as  slie 
desires. 

84.  One  of  the  most  impressive  sights  along  the  Hudson  River 
are  the  Palisades. 

85.  In  the  basement  should  be  the  engine-room  which  is  to 
heat  and  ventilate  the  building. 

86.  These  recommendations  provide  for  stricter  proceedings 
of  the  court  by  compelling  the  serving  of  the  writ  wlien  the  per- 
son can  be  found,  and  if  either  party  sliould  be  out  of  tlie  state 
they  shall  be  personally  served  with  process. 

87.  The  purpose  was  this :  that  Mr.  Brown  might  give  to  liis 
native  town  not  only  a  park  of  rai'e  beauty,  but  also  by  its  means 
to  bring  to  Way  land  once  a  year  some  of  the  most  distinguislied 
men  of  the  state. 

88.  No  longer  a  shy,  helpless  little  ]\Iolly  Cottontail,  ready  to 
fly  from  a  shadow:  the  mother's  love  was  strong  in  her.— 
Krnest  SetonThompson:  Wild  Anunals;  I  Have  Knoioi. 

89.  They  staggei'ed  just  like  a  drunken  man  would. 

90.  We  started  our  foghonia-blowing  and  was  relieved  to  see 
tiie  steamer  change  her  cour.se. 

91.  Two  boys  who  I  am  acquainted  witli  were  canoeing  on  the 
Pawtuxet. 

92.  The  oanoe  soon  sank,  and  1  liad  to  swim,  wliich  I  was 
afraid  to  do  before. 

93.  Neither  muskrat  nor  dog  were  seen  again  that  afternoon. 

94.  The  breeze  held  up  .so  good  tliat  tlie  captain  decided  to 
keep  on  to  Newport. 

95.  A  fisherman  had  caught  an  extraordiiiarj'  large  fisli. 

96.  The  prosjiects  for  a  good  baseball  team  is  very  brigiit. 

97.  This  loss  would  not  be  so  serious  if  there  was  only  another 
"back-stdp"  of  equal  ability. 

98.  But  everything  was  much  different  than  it  is  now. 


CHAPTEE  XIII 

IDIOM  AND  TRANSLATION-ENGLISH  i 

94,  Idiom  Defined. — To  express  the  same  idea,  the  Ger- 
man says,  '•'■Mache  die  Thilre  zu''^  ("Make  the  door  to") ; 
the  Englishman,  "Shut  the  door."  The  Frenchman  asks, 
^''Comment  vous  po7iez-vons?^^  ("How  do  you  carry 
yourself?");  the  Englishman,  "How  do  you  do?" 
The  German  says,  ^^Bs  gclit  mir  ganz  guV  ("It  goes  to  me 
entirely  good");  the  Englishman,  "I'm  pretty  well." 
These  differences  between  English  and  German  and  French 
are  differences  in  what  we  call  "idiom."  An  idiom  is  de- 
fined by  the  Century  Dictionary  as  "a  mode  of  expression 
peculiar  to  a  language;  a  peculiarity  of  phraseology;  a 
phrase  or  form  of  words  approved  by  the  usage  of  a 
language,  whether  spoken  or  written,  and  often  having  a 
significance  other  than  its  grammatical  or  logical  one." 

Xaturally,  unidiomatic  English  is  found  most  often  in 
the  speech  of  foreigners.  Even  those  Englishmen  and 
Americans  whose  grammar  is  faulty  violate  idiom  com- 
paratively rarely.  For  the  idiom  of  our  language  is,  in  a 
sense,  born  with  us.  But  when  we  begin  to  study  foreign 
tongues,  the  very  difference  between,  say,  Latin  and  Eng- 
lish, is  likely  temporarily  to  disturb  our  command  of 
English  and  to  give  us  two  ways  of  saying  things,  one  Eng- 
lish and  the  other  not.  For  that  reason,  we  now  turn  to  an 
examination  of  some  common  violations  of  English  idiom. 
Of  course,  since  idiom  is  illogical  habit,  no  complete 
classification  of  errors  in  idiom  is  possible.     Still,  many 


>  Study  of  this  chapter  is  best  deferred  tintil  the  student  has  begun  the 
study  of  a  foreign  language. 

210 


IDIOM    AND    TRANSLATION-ENGLISH  211 

of  these  errors  may  be  classed  roughly  as  un-English 
phrasing,  un-English  grammar,  or  un-English  order  of 
words. 

.  95.  Unidiomatic  Phrasing. — Even  without  the  influence 
of  a  study  of  foreign  tongues.  Englishmen  and  Americans 
now  and  again  use  words  in  a  connection  not  justified 
by  English  idiom.  Such  errors  are  a  form  of  impropriety. 
The  few  examples  cited  below  may  serve  to  put  the  stu- 
dent on  his  guard : 

1.  I  wish  to  say  a  few  remarks. 

2.  Do  you  anticipate  to  take  a  trip  abroad? 

3.  Johnson  never  accomi)Hshed  originality. 

4.  I  journeyed  by  the  train. 

5.  I  made  mention  on  it. 

6.  He  died  with  an  attack  of  fever. 

7.  He  had  an  aversion  from  this  action. 

8.  The  story  treated  from  the  arrival  of  Brut,  the  great 
grandson  of  ^neas,  to  a  Welsh  king,  Cadwallo,  on  the  isle. 

9.  For  twenty  years  Milton  gave  up  writing  poetry  and 
devoted  his  time  in  writing  pamphlets  for  defending  his  side. 

10.  You  have  reason  (for  "You  are  right"). 

It  will  be  noted  that  a  great  many  of  the  faults  in  these 
sentences  come  from  the  use  of  the  wrong  preposition.  It 
seems  worth  while,  therefore,  to  give  some  of  the  most 
usual  combinations  of  prepositions  with  other  words :  ^ 

abhorrence  of  bestow  upon 

absolve  from  change  for  (a  thing) 

accord  with  change  with  (a  person) 

acquit  of  comply  with 

adapted  to  or  for  confer  on  (=  give  to) 

affinity  between,  to,  or  with  confer  with  (=  talk  with) 

agree  with  (a  person)  confide  in  (=  trust  in) 

agree  to  (a  proposal)  confide  to  (=  intrust  to) 

averse  from  or  to  conform  to 


1  This  list  is  quoted  from  Professor  A.  S.  mil's  Foundations  of  Rhetoru 
which  in  turn  quotes  a  large  part  of  it  from  Meiklejohn's  The  English  Lan- 
guage. 


212  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

in  conformity  AsMth  or  to  disappointed  in  (what  we  have) 

convenient  for  or  to  dissent  from 

conversant  with  glad  at  or  of 

correspond  to  or  with  (a  thing)  involve  in 

correspond  with  (a  person)  martyr  for  or  to 

dependent   on    (bid    independ-  need  of 

ent  of)  part  from  or  with 

derogatory  to  profit  by 

differ  from  (a  person  or  thing)  reconcile  to  or  with 

differ  from  or  with  (in  opinion)  taste  of  (food) 

disappointed  of  (what  we  can  taste  for  (art) 

not  get)  thirst  for  or  after. 

96.  Unidiomatic  Constructions. — Constructions  not  Eng- 
lish are  usually  the  result  of  a  literal  translation  of  mark- 
edly idiomatic  foreign  constructions.  The  chief  danger 
for  the  student  is  that  he  will  copy  the  sentence-structure 
of  French,  German,  or  Latin.  Many  a  student  of  French 
employs  in  English  the  highly  exclamatory  French  sen- 
tence, and  says  "What  to  do!"  thinking  that  he  has 
translated  ''Qice  faireP'  Frequently  the  accusative  of 
specification  is  turned  directly  into  English,  and  the  trans- 
lator writes,  "He  was  easy  as  to  his  mind,"  when  he  means, 
"He  was  easy  in  his  mind."  Again,  almost  every  young 
student  of  Latin  uses  the  nominative  absolute  construc- 
tion too  freely  in  translating.  English  usage  allows  some 
absolutes;  e.  g.,  "Generally  speaking,  the  case  is  this," 
and,  "The  king  being  occupied  in  a  distant  part  of  the 
kingdom,  the  commander-in-chief  settled  the  matter." 
P.nt  such  sentences  as,  "He,  Marcus  Messala being  consul, 
headed  a  revolt,"  and,  "The  general,  the  bridge  having 
been  made,  ordered  his  men  to  cross  the  river"— sentences 
typical  of  student  translations— are  obviously  clumsy  and 
un-English.  The  question  is  in  part  one  of  the  number 
of  times  the  absolute  is  used  in  a  given  passage.  The 
atjsolute  construction  is  properly  used  perhaps  ten  times 
in  inflected  Latin  to  once  in  uninflected  English.     It  is 


IDIOM   AND   TRANSLATIOX-ENGLISH  213 

safe  to  say  that  in  translating  from  an  inflected  language 
into  English,  we  should  use  as  few  absolutes  as  possible, 
substituting  for  the  absolutes  of  the  original,  causal  clauses 
or  participial  phrases. 

97.  IJnidioinatic  Order  of  Words. — A  sentence  may  con- 
tain none  but  English  words  and  English  constructions 
and  yet  be  quite  unidiomatic,  if  the  order  of  the  words 
is  not  that  of  English.  Daring  the  first  years  of  acquaint- 
ance with  a  foreign  tongue,  the  danger  of  falling  into 
such  errors  is  great.  The  order  of  words  in  the  French 
sentence  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  English 
sentence.  But  in  Latin  and  German,  the  inflections  make 
possible  an  order  of  words  impossible  in  English.  In  the 
following  sentence,  translated  from  Caesar's  GalUc  War^ 
only  the  order  of  words  is  absolutely  wrong.  Yet  the  sen- 
tence is  not  English : 

By  these  things  led,  and  by  the  influence  of  Orgetorix  moved, 
they  determined  those  things  which  to  starting  pertained,  to 
get  ready. 

It  should  read: 

Moved  by  these  considerations,  and  by  the  influence  of  Orget- 
orix, they  decided  to  get  ready  whatever  was  necessary  for 
making  a  start. 

Translations  from  German  show  the  same  errors;  e.  g.: 

I  have  compelled  my  fancy  in  old  Hellas  to  wander,  and  the 
pictures  of  that  pair  of  friends  to  raise,  to  whom  the  old  world 
was  so  rich. 

If  "to  wander"  be  placed  after  "fancy,"  and  "to  raise" 
after  "and,"  the  sentence-  becomes  English.  In  both 
Latin  and  German  a  longer  and  more  frequent  suspension 
of  the  sense  is  posssible  than  in  English. 

98.  Translation-English. — Other  faults  in  translation 
are  not  rare.  To  keep  rigidly  to  the  punctuation  and  the 
sentence  division  of  the  original,  to  translate  Latin  pro- 
nouns without  regard  for  the  fact  that  English  lacks  the 


214  COMPOSITION"    AXD    RHETORIO 

fulness  of  inflection  which  makes  tlie  pronouns  clear  in 
Latin,  and  to  copy  the  very  short  paragraph  of  French 
narrative  style,  are  faults  each  of  which  is  sufficient  to 
make  a  passage  as  a  whole  unidiomatic,  even  though  every 
separate  clause  in  it  is  perfectly  idiomatic.  To  the  style 
of  such  passages  we  may  apply  the  name  "Translation- 
English."     Examples  follow: 

Divitiacus  spoke  in  their  behalf,  the  Bellovaci  have  at  all 
times  been  under  the  protection  and  in  alliance  with  the 
Haeduan  state :  driven  by  their  leaders,  who  said  that  the  Haedui 
reduced  into  slavery  by  Caesar  were  enduring  all  sorts  of  insults 
and  shame,  they  had  revolted  from  the  Haedui  and  had  made 
war  on  the  Roman  people. — Caesar:  Gallic  War. 

Here  the  translator  has  followed  the  punctuation  and 
the  sentence-division  of  the  original  too  closely. 

The  greatness  of  my  client's  wealth  was  shown.  Within  four 
days  from  the  time  when  these  things  happened,  the  news  was 
brought  to  Chrysogonus  in  the  camp  of  Lucius  Sulla  at  Volterrae. 
The  greatness  of  his^  wealth  was  shown;  the  fertility  of  his 
estate  (for  he  left  thirteen  farms,  and  almost  all  bordered  on  the 
Tiber)  and  the  lack  of  resources  and  isolation  of  my  client"  were 
pointed  out.  He  who  had  been  very  needy  on  his  own  estate 
was  very  extravagant  on  another's. 

Here  the  translator  has  turned  the  Latin  pronouns  into 
English  pronouns  without  regard  for  clearness.  In 
translating,  make  your  sentences  clear,  even  if  all  of  the 
pronouns  of  the  original  have  to  give  place  to  nouns  or 
circumlocutions. 

In  the  early  part  of  March,  in  the  year  1841,  I  was  traveling  in 
Corsica. 

There  are  few  journeys  so  picturesque  and  so  agreeable. 

Starting  from  Toulon  you  reach  Ajaccio  in  twenty  hours,  or 
Bastia  in  twenty-four. 

Once  there,  a  horse  is  readily  hired  for  five  francs  a  day,  or 
purchased  for  fifty,  and  this  horse,  in  spite  of  the  smallness  of 

1  Whose? 

s  English  possessive  needed. 


IDIOM    AXD    TRANSLATION-ENGLISH  215 

the  price,  will,  like  the  famous  mare  of  the  Gascon,  which 
jumped  from  the  Pont  Neuf  into  the  Seine,  be  more  serviceable 
than  a  French  racer. 

Over  bridges,  on  which  Auriol  would  have  needed  a  balance- 
pole,  and  through  by-ways  to  which  Balmah  would  have  clung 
with  hooks,  it  passes  in  safety. — Dumas:  The  Corsican  Brothers. 

Here  the  translator  has  followed  the  paragraphing  of 
the  French  original.  But  English  usage  does  not  sanc- 
tion so  free  a  use  of  the  short  paragraph. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  good  English,  the  importance 
of  avoiding  slavish  adherence  to  the  original  in  translation 
can  hardly  he  overestimated.  No  one  can  consistently 
translate  good  Latin  or  French  or  German  into  bad  Eng- 
lish without  losing  almost  all  of  his  imperfect  command 
of  his  native  tongue.  Class  translations,  like  all  others, 
should  be,  first  and  foremost,  English.  Then,  and  only 
then,  is  there  a  legitimate  chance  to  bring  the  translation 
into  exact  conformity  with  the  sense  of  the  original. 
Some  noted  teachers  of  Latin  go  so  far  as  to  make  their 
pupils  translate  Latin  slang  into  modern  English  slang. 
But  perhaps  this  is  going  too  far.  The  teacher  of  Eng- 
lish is  anxious  only  that  the  student  shall  not  acquire 
a  foreign  language  at  the  expense  of  his  English.  The 
student  should  be  constantly  on  the  watch  lest  there  creep 
into  translations  ostensibly  English,  foreign  fashions  of 
punctuation,  diction,  and  grammar.  For  when  an  Eng- 
lishman or  an  American  has  lost  the  ability  to  talk  and 
write  in  the  English  fashion,  he  may  as  well  buy  no  more 
paper  and  ink.  His  work  will  be  unidiomatic  and  there- 
fore harsh  and  obscure. 

Exercise  XIII 

A,  Define  idiom.  Why  is  an  accurate  classification  of 
faults  in  idiom  impossible?  Under  what  three  heads  may 
many  violations  of  idiom  be  classed?     Give  examples. 


216  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

B.  Does  idiom  govern  only  words  and  phrases?  Is  the 
duty  of  a  translator  done  when  he  has  found  synonyms 
for  the  foreign  words?  When  he  has  translated  the  words 
approximately,  and  made  sentences  of  Englisli  form? 
"Why  is  scrupulous  translation  important? 

('.  Which  of  these  translations  is  the  better?  Give 
specific  reasons  for  your  decision. 

You  ask  us,  Gratius,  wlij-  Ave  are  pleased  by  the  great  talent 
of  this  man.  Because  it  furnishes  us  with  that  which  refreshes 
the  mind  after  the  quarreling  of  the  forum  and  rests  our  ears 
after  wearisome  dissension.  Or  do  you  think  because  we  daily 
speak  about  such  a  A-ariety  of  affairs,  it  is  sufficient  for  us  unless 
Ave  train  our  minds  by  study,  or  do  you  think  ovir  minds  can 
bear  sucli  a  strain  unless  we  relax  them  by  the  pleasures  received 
from  these  studies".'  for  my  part  I  confess  to  have  given  myself 
over  to  these  studies:  let  others  be  ashamed  Avho  so  bury  them- 
selves in  books  that  they  bring  out  of  them  nothing  for  common 
advantage  or  do  not  bring  their  knowledge  to  the  light  and  view 
of  others;  moreoA^er,  Avhy  should  I  be  ashamed,  jurors,  I  who  for 
so  many  years  have  liA-ed  in  sucli  a  Avay  that  never  either  per- 
sonal advantage  or  loA-e  of  ease  has  drawn  me  from  duty,  or 
pleasures  called  me  or  finally  sleep  kept  me  back"?— Cicero : 
ArchioH. 

2.  You  ask  me,  Gratius,  Avliy  I  am  so  pleased  with  this  man.  It 
is  because  he  supplies  us  with  something  AAdiich  Avill  refresh  our 
minds  after  the  noise  of  the  forum,  and  rest  our  ears  Avhen  they 
are  tired  by  altercations.  How  do  you  think  we  can  supply  our- 
selves with  material  for  speaking  daily  on  such  a  Aariety  of  sub- 
jects unless  we  train  oiu"  minds  bj^  study?  How  can  we  make 
our  minds  able  to  bear  such  a  strain  unless  Ave  relax  them  by  the 
jjleasure  of  reading"?  I  admit  that  I  haA e  giAen  myself  to  these 
pursuits.  Let  those  be  ashamed  wlio  haA-e  so  buried  themseh'es 
in  their  books  that  they  gain  no  benefit  from  them,  or  bring  none 
into  A-iew  or  light.  But  Avliy,  jurors,  should  I  be  ashamed,  I, 
who  haA'e  lived  so  many  j'ears  without  eA^er  letting  selfish  con- 
venience or  desire  for  peace  draAv  me  away,  or  pleasure  call  me, 
or  even  sleej)  keep  me  back".'— CiCERO:  Archias. 

D.  Point  out  certain  differences  between  English  anl 
French  sentences;  between  Endish  and  Latin  sentences; 


IDIOM    AND   TRANSLATION-ENGLISH  217 

between  English  and  German  sentences;  between  French 
and  English  paragraphing. 

E.  Frame    sentences   embodying  the   English    idioms 
given  below.     Add  other  idioms  to  the  list: 

1.  The  so-called  "double  possessive";   e.  g.,  "this  picture  of 
John's." 

2.  "Either"  at  the  end  of  a  negative  sentence;   e.  g.,  "I  did 
not  go,  either." 

o.  Many  a. 

4.  To  get  wind  of. 

5.  On  hand. 

6.  To  call  to  account. 

7.  To  take  advantage  of. 

8.  To  turn  the  tables. 

9.  To  take  amiss. 

10.  To  pay  attention. 

11.  To  avail  oneself  of. 

12.  To  be  badly  off,  or  well  off. 

13.  To  have  a  hand  in  (anything). 

14.  To  have  a  mind  to  (i.  e.,  to  intend). 

15.  To  be  bent  upon  (i.  e.,  to  be  determined). 

16.  To  catch  cold. 

17.  To  pay  court. 

18.  To  be  head  over  ears  in  debt,  in  love,  etc. 

19.  To  be  above  doing  (anything). 

20.  To  turn  a  deaf  ear. 

21.  To  take  a  fancy  to  (anything). 

22.  To  be  on  tenter-hooks. 

23.  To  stick  in  one's  crop. 

24.  Cheek  by  jowl. 

F.  Comment  on  the  idiomatic  quality  of  the  following 
sentences:^ 

1.  After  leaving  East  Green vrich  the  first  town  on  the  route 
is  Wickford. 

2.  After  brushing  off  my  clothes  thei-e  were  not  more  than 
ten  minutes  left. 


1  When  the  student  is  asked,  as  here,  to  comment  on  a  number  of  sen- 
tences, he  should  not  assume  that  every  example  is  ■wrong.  Discuss  the 
sentences;  then  decide  which  are  right  and  which  are  wrong. 


218  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

3.  Wliile  writing  my  daily  theme  there  came  a  knock  at  the 
door. 

4.  He  kept  up  this  mad  flight  for  half  an  hour;  then,  he 
becoming  tired,  vre  landed  him. 

5.  Taking  up  our  propositions,  then,  in  logical  order,  the  first 
one  that  presents  itself  [for  our  consideration  is  that  existing 
conditions  demand  reform. 

6.  Entering  the  Union  army  at  an  early  age,  his  excellent 
qualities  won  for  him  rapid  promotion. 

7.  The  better  hotels  throughout  the  city  were,  as  a  rule,  fairly 
well  patronized,  persons  passing  through  the  doors  in  a  steady 
stream. 

8.  By  not  specifying  exactly  what  non-support  consists  in, 
the  term  is  used  to  cover  other  and  less  creditable  causes. 

9.  The  gas  having  been  turned  down,  he  stumbled  about  in 
the  darkness. 

10.  He,  Mai-cus  Messala  and  Marcus  Piso  being  consuls, 
induced  by  desire  of  the  kingdom,  made  a  conspiracy  among  the 
nobles. 

11.  The  weather  having  been  warm  several  days,  the  streets 
were  deep  in  slush. 

G.  Give  examples  of  tlie  improper  use  of  the  accusa- 
tive of  specificatiou.  Is  the  following  sentence  a  case 
in  point? 

Chalmers's  treatise  is,  as  to  eloquence,  surpassingly  beau- 
tiful.— Mrs.  Browning:  Letters. 

H.  Correct  the  following  unidiomatic  sentences : 

1.  We  shall  now  contemplate  chiefly  on  them. 
3.  A  great  improvement  will  be  made  in  the  terminals  of  the 
new  bridge  in  comparison  to  the  old  one. 

3.  The  stranger  let  know  his  dislike  for  such  medicines. 

4.  These  bones  to  the  fish  are  for  the  same  purpose. 

5.  Then  his  next  step  is  of  finding  some  way  to  avoid  the  rules. 

6.  The  question  resolves  itself  to  sevei'al  points. 

7.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  illegal  liquor  traffic  would 
be  isolated  to  certain  localities. 

8.  We  can  very  readily  .see  how  that  the  retailer  was  forced 
to  sell  on  Sunday. 

9  Our  father  is  a  senator-,  he  hag  for  himself  more  than  a 
thousand  serfs,— T01.ST0I:  Cossacks, 


IDIOM    AXD   TRANSLATIOK-ENGLISH  219 

10.  The  balloon  was  connected  to  the  ground  by  a  rope. 

11.  Scarce  are  flying  flsh. 

13.  Sailors  hurry  from  place  to  place  in  the  endeavor  of  hello- 
ing some  sick  and  suffering  passenger. 

13.  I  don't  know  if  I  can  mend  it. 

14.  This  refers  to  the  interference  of  our  chapel  service. 

/.  Eewrite  the  following  unidiomatic  passages : 

1.  CONCERNING  A  YOUTH  WHO  WAS  UNABLE  TO  LIE 

A  certain  father  of  a  family  to  whom  there  was  a  sufficiently 
large  farm,  moreover  a  .son  in  whom  he  especially  rejoiced,  gave 
this  one  for  a  gift  on  his  birthday  a  little  axe.  He  exhorted  him 
greatly  to  use  the  weapon  with  the  highest  care,  lest  it  might  be 
for  a  detriment  to  himself.  The  youth  promised  himself  to  be 
about  to  obey. 

When  it  was  necessary  for  that  one,  on  account  of  business, 
to  seek  a  certain  walled  town  situated  not  far,  this  one,  the  axe 
having  been  hastilj^  seized,  departs  into  the  garden,  about  to  cut 
down  each  most  flourishing  cherry  tree. 

That  one,  his  home  having  been  resought,  inflamed  with 
wrath,  the  servants  being  called  together,  asked  who  might  have 
l)een  the  author  of  this  so  great  slaughter.  All  were  denying, 
wlien  this  one,  running  vip  to  that  one,  "Truly,  by  Hercules,'' 
said  he,  "O  my  father,  I  am  unable  to  lie;  I,  myself,  cut  down 
the  tree  wnth  that  little  axe  which  thou  gavest  to  me  for  a  i^res- 
cnt." — (A  burlesque  translation.) 

2.  Therefore,  for  these  reasons  he  was  given  over  from  the 
state  by  Cneius  Pompey.  The  accuser  does  not  deny  this;  but 
blames  it.  Thus  they  wish  the  fortunes  of  a  i:)erfectly  innocent 
man,  and  the  deed  of  a  most  excellent  general  to  be  condemned. 
Therefore  the  life  of  Cornelius,  the  deed  of  Pompey  is  called  to 
trial.  You  grant  that  this  man  was  born  of  a  very  honorable 
family  in  that  state  in  which  he  was  born,  and  from  his  youtii 
up  laying  aside  everything  else,  he  .spent  his  time  in  our  wars, 
and  with  our  commanders,  and  was  absent  from  no  task,  no 
siege,  and  no  battle.  All  these  things  are  not  only  full  of  praise 
but  also  the  peculiar  traits  of  Cornelius,  nor  is  there  any  blame 
in  these  things.  Whence  therefore  is  the  charge?  Because 
Pompey  gave  him  over  from  the  state.  A  charge  against  this 
man?  Surely,  least  of  all,  unless  honor  is  to  be  considered  a  dis- 
grace. Against  whom  therefore?  In  actual  fact  against  no  one, 
l^ut  in  the  argument  of  the  accuser  against  him  alone  who  did 


220  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

the  giving.  If  he,  led  on  by  influence,  had  gained  over  his 
reward  a  less  worthy  man,  nay,  even  if  a  good  man,  but  not  so 
deserving ;  if,  finally  he  said  that  something  had  been  done  not 
contrary  to  what  was  allowed,  but  contrary  to  what  was  fitting, 
nevertheless  all  blame  of  this  kind,  ought  to  be  rejected  by  you, 
O  judges.  Now  indeed,  wliat  is  being  said?  What  does  the 
accuser  say?  That  Pompey  has  done  what  was  not  allowed  him? 
This  is  more  weighty  than  if  he  said  that  that  had  been  done  by 
him  which  was  not  fitting.  For  there  are  some  things  which 
are  not  fitting,  even  if  they  are  allowed.  But  whatever  is  not 
allowed,  certainly  is  not  fitting. — Cicero:  Balbus. 

3.  Four  years  passed. 

Deruchette  approached  her  twenty-first  year  and  was  never 
married. 

Someone  has  written  somewhere :  A  fixed  idea,  it  is  a  gimlet. 
Each  year  it  causes  itself  to  penetrate  by  one  turn.  If  someone 
wishes  to  draw  it  out  for  us  the  first  year,  he  must  tear  our 
hair;  the  second  year  he  must  tear  our  skin;  the  third  year 
he  must  break  our  bones;  the  fourth  year  he  must  rip  out  the 
brain. 

Gilliatt  was  in  that  fourth  year.  He  had  not  yet  said  a  word 
to  Deruchette.    He  dreamed  of  that  charming  girl.    That  was  all. 

It  had  happened  once,  finding  himself  by  chance  at  Saint 
Sampson,  he  had  seen  Derucliette  talking  with  Letliierry  before 
the  door  which  opened  upon  the  embankment  of  the  quay. 
Gilliatt  had  dared  to  approach  very  near.  He  believed  it  to 
be  sure  that  at  the  moment  he  had  passed  she  had  smiled.  There 
was  nothing  of  the  impossible  in  that. 

Deruchette  heard  always  from  time  to  time  the  bag-pipe. 

That  bag  iiipe,  Mr.  Letliierry  he  also  heard  it.  He  had  ended 
by  remarking  that  music  under  the  windows  of  Deruchette.  The 
music  tender,  the  circumstances  aggravating.  A  gallant  noc- 
turne was  not  to  his  taste. — Victor  Hugo  :  The  Toilers  of  the  Sea. 

4.  He  granted  to  the  Haedui  asking  that  tliey  might  place 
the  Boii  in  their  borders;  to  whom  he  gave  lands,  and  wlaoni 
they  received  afterwards  into  equal  condition  of  right  and  of 
liberty  as  they  themselves  were 

J.  Rewrite  the  following  translation,  removing  the 
ambiguous  pronouns : 

But  wlien  he  heard  what  had  happened  and  what  they  had 
decreed  at  Rome  and   Carthage  and   Avhen   he   found  that  he 


IDIOM    AND    TRANSLATION-ENGLISH  221 

was  leader  and  cause  of  the  war,  he  divided  and  sold  what 
tliere  was  left  of  the  plunder,  thinking  he  ought  to  delay  no 
longer,  and  called  together  his  Spanish  soldiers  and  addressed 
them. — LlVY:  xxi,  21. 

K.  Point  out  the  faults  of  idiom  in  the  following  pas- 
sage.    AVhy  did  Kipling  make  it  unidiomatic? 

[She  knew  when  it  was  coming;  for  Kami  would  gather  his 
black  alpaca  coat  into  a  bunch  behind  him,  and,  with  faded 
blue  eyes  that  saw  neither  pupils  nor  canvas,  look  back  into  the 
past  to  recall  the  history  of  one  Binat.]  "You  have  all  done  not 
so  badly,"  he  would  say.  "But  you  shall  remember  that  it  is 
not  enough  to  have  the  method,  and  the  art,  and  the  power,  nor 
even  that  which  is  touch,  but  you  shall  have  also  the  convic- 
tion tliat  nails  tlie  work  to  the  wall.  Of  the  so  many  I  have 
taught'' — here  the  students  would  begin  to  unfix  drawing-pins 
or  get  their  tubes  together — "the  very  so  niany  that  I  have 
taught,  tlie  best  was  Binat.  All  that  comes  of  the  study  and  the 
work  and  the  knowledge  was  to  him  even  when  he  came.  After 
he  left  me  he  should  have  done  all  that  could  be  done  with  the 
colour,  the  form,  and  the  knowledge.  Only,  he  had  not  the 
conviction.  So  to-day  I  hear  no  more  of  Binat — the  best  of  my 
pupils — and  that  is  long  ago.  So  to-day,  too,  you  will  be  glad  to 
hear  no  more  of  me.  Continnez,  mesdenioiselles,  and  above  all, 
with  conviction." — Kipling;  The  Light  That  Failed, 


PART   III 

DICTION 


CHAPTER   XIV 
NUMBER  OF   WORDS 

99.  The  Value  of  Brevity. — From  the  somewhat  dead- 
ening discussion  of  absolute  right  and  wrong  in  style,  Ave 
now  pass  to  questions  of  better  or  worse — that  is,  from 
the  subject  of  correctness  to  that  of  effectiveness.  Per- 
haps the  first  and  simplest  rule  that  a  writer  who  would 
be  effective  must  learn  is,  that  to  be  forcible, he  must  be 
as  brief  as  is  consistent  with  saying  all  he  has  to  say.  To 
use  two  pages  where  one  page  would  convey  the  idea,  is  to 
be  ineffective.  The  essay  or  story  that  interests  us  is  the 
one  that  goes  straight  to  the  point.  Obvious  as  this  rule 
is,  wordiness  is  so  common  that  De  Quincey  calculated 
that  cutting  one  superfluous  word  out  of  each  sentence 
would  increase  the  time  of  the  reading  public  by  one- 
twelfth.  If,  in  addition  to  dropping  useless  words,  useless 
details  also  were  omitted,  one  can  only  guess  how  great 
the  saving  would  be. 

100.  Superfluous  Words. — The  use  of  superfluous  words, 
as  distinct  from  superfluous  details  or  ideas,  may  take  any 
one  of  three  forms — redundancy,  or  the  use  of  a  needless 
Avord  here  and  there ;  tautology,  or  a  direct  repetition  of 
the  thought ;  and  verbosity,  or  a  superfluity  of  words  so 
pervading  that  condensation  means  complete  rewriting. 
Examples  of  all  three  classes  are  given  below : 

223 


224 


COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 


Bediinddncy 


1.  A  covering  of  snow  keeps 
the  ground  from  freezing  as 
deep  as  it  otherwise  would 
freeze. 


1.  It  is  a  scientific  fact  that 
when  there  is  a  covering  of 
snow  on  the  ground,  it  keejjs 
the  ground  from  f I'eezing  to  as 
great  a  depth  as  it  otherwise 
would. 

2.  The  sultan  resembled,  in 
the  expression  on  his  face,  a 
criminal  when  he  is  led  to  the 
electric  chaii*. 

3.  However,  notwithstand- 
ing this  fact,  it  seems  to  me 
that  the  political  phase  of  this 
([uestion  should  be  entirely 
eliminated. 

4.  I  Avatched  the  procession 
till  it  disappeared  from  my 
view. 

o.  Tliere  are  several  of  these 
problems  to  which  we  must 
pay  our  attention  at  once. 

6.  The  police  department 
was  totally  inefficient  effec- 
tively to  suppress  the  crime 
that  existed  on  all  sides. 

Note  especially  the  redundancy  that  comes  from  the 
use  of  a  needless  "it  is,"  "there  is,"  or  "there  are"  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence. 

Tantologij 


2.  The  sultan's  expression 
resembled  that  of  a  criminal 
being  led  to  the  electric  chair. 

3.  Notwithstandingthisfact, 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  polit- 
ical phaseof  thequestiou  should 
be  eliminated. 

4.  I  watched  the  procession 
till  it  disapjieared. 

5.  Several  of  these  problems 
demand  immediate  attention. 

(5.  The  police  were  totally 
unable  to  suppress  the  crime 
that  existed  on  all  sides. 


1.  This  paragraph  is  poorly 
and  ineffectively  arranged, 
and  by  this  arrangement  loses 
force. 

2.  Getting  out  of  the  car, 
for  this  is  the  end  of  the  line 
and  the  final  .stopping  place, 
and  looking  around,  you  find 
yourself  in  quite  a  settlement 
of  large  and  small  houses  both 
near  at  hand  and  far  away. 


1.  The  poor  arrangement  of 
tliis  paragraph  weakens  it. 


2.  Getting  out  of  the  car — 
for  this  is  the  end  of  the  line — 
you  find  yourself  in  a  fair- 
sized  grou])  of  houses,  large 
and  small. 


NUMBER    OF    WORDS 


2-25 


3.  ' ' Forsooth,  sir, " '  quoth  he, 
"I  am  an  old  man,  and  I  re- 
member when  there  were  no 
Goodwin's  Sands.  But  when 
we  built  Tenterton  steeple,  the 
Sands  soon  came.  So  I  trace 
tlie  decay  of  Sandwich  haven 
to  the  building  of  that  steeple. " 


3.  "Forsooth,  sir,"'  quoth 
he,  "I  am  an  old  man;  I  think 
that  Tenterton  steeple  is  the 
cause  of  Goodwin's  sands. 
For  I  am  an  old  man,  sir,'' 
quoth  he,  "I  may  remember 
the  building  of  Tenterton 
steeple,  and  I  may  remember 
when  there  was  no  steeple  at 
all  there.  And  before  that 
Tenterton  steeple  was  in  build- 
ing, there  was  no  manner  of 
talking  of  any  fiats  or  sands 
that  stopped  up  the  haven; 
and  therefore  I  think  that 
Tenterton  steeple  is  the  cause 
of  the  decay  and  destroying  of 
Sandwich  haven. ' ' — B  i  s  H  o  p 
Latimer,  quoted  in  Ray's 
Handbook  of  Proverbs. 

Tautology  so  gross  as  that  in  the  last  extract  is  usually 
accompanied  by  immaturity  or  illiteracy.     A  tautologous 
passage  is  of  necessity  also  either  redundant  or  verbose. 
Ve7'bosifj/ 


1.  Entirely  lacking  in  paint, 
the  schoolhouse  does  not  of- 
fend our  eyes  with  the  gaudi- 
ness  so  often  noticeable  in  city 
schools,  while  the  ragged  shin- 
gles which  adorn  the  sides  of 
the  box-like  structure  seem  to 
indicate  that  a  little  more  care 
would  not  be  misplaced.  The 
interior  of  the  schoolhouse 
does  not  indicate  a  very  high 
standard  of  local  affluence,  or 
at  least  it  does  not  show  that 
the  care  and  energy  of  the 
school  trustees  have  been  very 
lavishly  devoted  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  teaching  equipment. 


1.  Outside,  the  school  is  a 
bare  box  of  a  building,  un- 
painted  and  raggedly  shingled 
— uncared-for,  you  .say  at  once. 
Inside,  too,  it  is  bare  and  neg- 
lected. 


226 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


2.  Thus  far  the  police  have 
failed  to  catch  the  man  who  is 
poisoning  the  dogs. 


3.  From  the  top  of  the  hill  I 
looked  over  the  wliole  comitry- 
side.  The  shores  of  Thomp- 
son's Pond  were  dotted  with 
cottages  and  club-houses — a 
margin  of  civilization  on  the 
big  pine-forest  behind.  For  a 
moment,  the  trees  were  re- 
flected in  the  water,  straight 
and  long:  then  a  ripple  came 
and  the  clear-cut  picture  was 
broken  up  into  shaking,  iri- 
descent fragments. 


2.  Thus  far  the  attempts  of 
the  authorities  to  locate  the 
Borgia  who  officiates  as  the 
party  of  the  first  part  at  this 
destruction  of  the  village 
canines  have  been  fruitless. — 
Boston  Herald. 

3.  On  my  uncle's  farm  in 
Maine  is  a  very  high  pinnacle, 
from  the  top  of  which  one  can 
get  a  fine  view  of  the  neigh- 
boring country.  One  day  last 
summer  I  visited  this  pinnacle 
and  took  a  general  survey  of 
the  country.  In  front  of  mo 
was  a  large,  beautiful  sheet  of 
water  known  as  Thompson 
Pond.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
forest  of  large  pine  trees. 
Along  the  shores  of  the  pond 
are  several  cottages  and  club- 
houses. A  gentle  rijjple  soon 
began  to  come  over  the  pond, 
and  in  the  brilliant  glare  of  the 
sun  the  waters  reflected  nu- 
merous beautiful  colors  which 
contrasted  favorably  with  the 
verdant,  green  foliage  of  the 
woods. 


Perhaps  the  excuses  oftenest  advanced  for  wordiness 
are  that  the  writer  was  trying  to  be  perfectly  clear,  or, 
strange  to  say,  very  forcible.  If  "dumbfounded"  and 
"excellent"  seem  to  the  unpracticed  writer  too  weak  to 
express  his  feeling,  he  prefixes  an  adverb  and  writes 
' '  utterly  dumbfounded, ' '  or  " superlatively  excellent. ' '  If 
"greatness"  does  not  seem  to  him  to  give  the  precise 
shade  of  meaning  desired,  ho  shirks  the  task  of  hunting 
for  the  right  word  and  expands  it  into  "greatness  and 
splendor    and    magnificence,"       If    "essential"    seems, 


NUMBEE   OF  WORDS 


227 


from  overuse,  not  strong  enough,  he  overlooks  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  and  says,  "The  step  is  very  essential." 
Similarly  we  get  "perfectly  horrid,"  "popular  with  the 
people,"  etc.  But  whatever  the  cause  of  wordiness,  the 
effect  is  always  the  same — dullness. 

■  101,  Superfluous  Details. — The  use  of  superfluous  ideas 
or  details  is  called  prolixity.  Prolixity  may.  result  from 
dwelling  unduly  on  the  minor  parts  of  a  really  important 
subject,  or  from  treating  at  length  an  unimportant  sub- 
ject. It  usually  indicates  thinness  of  material  (i.  e.,  pov- 
erty of  thought  or  information)  or  lack  of  concentration, 
or  both.  A  prolix  passage  is  necessarily  verbose.  Exam- 
ples follow : 


1.  The  people  at  home  laugh 
at  me  occasionally  for  the 
lunches  that  I  bring  out  to 
school,  and,  although  I  must 
admit  that  they  are  sometimes 
a  little  peculiar,  I  think  that 
on  the  whole  they  are  very 
sensible — at  any  rate  they  are 
what  I  like.  The  best  lunch 
that  I  have  brought  with  me 
yet  is  a  piece  of  brown  bread,  a 
cup  of  fried  potato,  and  a  little 
glass  box  of  butter.  Then,  of 
course,  I  have  a  knife  and  fork 
out  here,  so  as  to  manage  such 
a  lunch  properly.  Another 
lunch  that  I  think  is  very 
good,  a  lunch  that  I  bring  more 
than  I  do  any  other,  is  sand- 
wiches made  out  of  cinnamon- 
bread  and  potato.  The  potato 
is  sometimes  fried,  sometimes 
stewed,  and  sometimes  baked; 
but  the  fried,  I  think,  makes 
the  best  sandwiches.  Once  in 
a  while,  of  course,  I  have  to 


1.  [The  prolixity  in  this  ex- 
tract is  so  obvious  that  no  con- 
densation is  attempted.] 


228 


COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


use  in  place  of  cinnamon- 
bread,  biscuits  or  muffins  or 
corn-bread.  I  have  tried  put- 
ting a  little  cinnamon  and 
sugar  on  the  biscuits  before 
putting  the  potato  on,  but  I 
don't  get  in  this  way  quite  the 
same  effect  that  I  do  from  the 
cinnamon  -  bread,  and  I  have 
about  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  butter  and  potato  are  all 
that  biscuits  need.  Another 
combination  that  I  have  tried 
is  a  little  maple  syrup  on  the 
potato-muffin  sandwiches.  I 
have  decided,  however,  about 
the  muffins  as  I  did  about  the 
biscuits,  that  all  they  need  is 
butter  and  potato.  Another 
thing  that  I  have  tried  is 
bringing  baked  potatoes  whole, 
instead  of  putting  them  inside 
of  sandwiches.  Then  I  have 
some  salt  out  here,  and — well, 
cold  baked  potato  sometimes 
tastes  pretty  good. 

2.  One  of  the  most  delight- 
ful social  experiences  in  my 
high-school  life  was  that  of  a 
straw-ride.  There  had  been  a 
fall  of  snow  a  few  days  pre- 
vious, and  the  sleighing  was  of 
the  best.  Consequently  the 
idea  of  a  ride  was  no  sooner 
proposed  than  eagerly  ac- 
cepted. 

The  party  met  at  one  of  the 
young  ladies'  homes  early  in  the 
evening  to  wait  for  the  team. 
While  waiting  for  the  team 
the  time  was  spent  in  playing 
games  and  an  enjoyable  time 


2.  The  snow  was  deep  and 
firm,  the  weather  cold  but 
clear,  and  the  waiting  crowd 
of  young  people  eager  to  be  off. 
At  last  it  came,  the  big  four- 
horse  sled,  lined  with  straw 
and  robes,  and  in  we  piled.  A 
crack  of  the  whip  and  we  were 
off,  the  jingle  of  the  bells  min- 
gling with  the  chatter  of  talk 
and  the  peals  of  laughter.  You 
never  saw  a  merrier  party. 


NUMBER   OF   WORDS 


229 


was  had.'  The  team  soon 
came,  a  low  four-horse  sled, 
the  floor  of  which  was  covered 
with  straw  and  buffalo  robes. 
At  first  it  seemed  impossible 
for  all  of  us  to  get  into  it. 
Yet  we  did  and  a  merrier 
party  you  never  saw. 

Thus  we  started,  the  merry 
laughter  mingling  with  the 
jingle  of  the  bells. 

3.  At  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  last 
summer,  I  was  very  thirsty, 
but  had  to  drink  very  bad 
water.  The  city's  water  sup- 
ply is  pumped  from  the  muddy 
Ohio  River.  The  water  is 
supposed  to  be  purified  at  the 
pumping  station,  but  most  of 
the  time  while  I  was  in  the 
city,  the  filter  plant  was  out  of 
order,  so  that  I  had  to  drink 
either  ice-water  or  the  un- 
healthy, muddy  water  from  the 
Ohio  River.  When  I  i-eached 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  I  found  very 
different  drinking  water.  The 
water  is  pumped  from  Lake 
Erie,  of  which  the  water  is  very 
clear  and  transparent,  com- 
pared with  the  muddy  water  of 
Cincinnati.  The  Buffalo  water 
goes  through  purifiers,  so  that 
that  used  for  drinking  purposes 
is  very  clear  and  pure. 


3.  The  drinking  water  used 
in  Cincinnati  comes  from  the 
muddy  Ohio  River,  and  is 
much  inferior  to  the  pure, 
clear  water  which  the  people  in 
Buffalo  are  able  to  get  from 
Lake  Erie. 


Exercise    XIV 

A.  Define  the  different  kinds  of  wordiness.  Find 
examples  of  wordiness  in  the  daily  papers.  Condense 
the  wordy  passages  you  select. 

•  See  section  131,  example  4,  footnote. 


230  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

B.  Eeduce   the  wordiness    of   the   following   extracts: 

1.  These  and  many  other  questions  have  been  proposed  and 
argued  upon,  but  no  satisfactory  answer  has  occurred  to  satisfy 
the  minds  of  all. 

2.  Although  there  is  a  surplus  in  tlie  treasury,  yet  how  could 
it  be  xised  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  position  where  it  now 
lies? 

3.  It  seemed  to  Olenin,  especially  this  evening,  that  here  in 
this  village  would  be  all  his  happiness,  his  house,  his  family, 
and  that  never  would  he  live  so  happily  as  here. — Tolstoi: 
Cossacks. 

4.  But  if  the  petitioner  shall  liave  had  his  actual  domicile  in 
residence  in  this  state,  he  may  petition. 

5.  Never  were  so  many  boats  assembled  as  at  the  recent  fete 
last  July. 

6.  Our  last  view  of  Niagara  was  seen  from  a  point  on  one  of 
the  islands. 

7.  The  wandering  mountebanks  easily  gather  a  crowd  about 
by  exhibiting  a  few  tricks  or  by  showing  some  monstrosity  of 
nature. 

8.  He  was  completely  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  howling 
mob. 

9.  They  were  walnuts  and  biitternuts,  as  hickory  nuts  do  not 
grow  in  the  lowland  or  along  the  water;  but  these  nuts  do. 

10.  Now  is  my  opportunity  to  write  to  you  of  Gertrude's  his 
tory,  which  is  one  of  so  mvich  interest  and  importance  to  me, 

and,  I  may  safely  add,  of  interest  to  all  at  W Seminai-y, 

where,  among  teachers  as  well  as  among  pupils,  she  has  won  so 
many  hearts,  now  devoted  to  her. 

11.  The  ship  had  struck  upon  a  rock,  and,  water  having 
rushed  in,  she  was  sinking.  Now  the  hearts  were  not  free  and 
glad,  but  they  were  full  of  fear  and  horror. 

12.  All  persons  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  he  knew  as 
well  on  the  first  day  of  their  acquaintance  as  he  ever  would  know 
them.  So  it  seemed,  at  least,  for  he  certainly  became  acquainted 
with  people  very  rapidly.  His  acquaintances,  therefore,  were 
very  numerous.  He  knew  nearly  everyone  in  the  school  in  a 
short  time,  and  knew  them  well,  whicli  is  not  always  tlie  case 
with  such  a  person. 

13.  They  have  perfect  confidence  in  their  ability  to  succeed  in 
getting  enough  votes  so  that  the  Morse  bill  will  go  through. 


NUMBEK    OF    WORDS  231 

14.  Such  is  the  character  of  the  woman  who  succeeded  in  fol- 
lowing out  exactly  the  programme  of  life  whicli  she  mapped  out 
for  lierself  in  her  girlhood,  and  one  which  she  carried  out  to  the 
letter. 

15.  "Every  boy,"  says  the  President,  "should  lead  a  normal 
life  while  in  college."  This  is  comparatively  easy  for  those  who 
do  not  have  to  earn  their  vray  through  college  or  who  are  not 
ambitious  for  honors  in  college.  But  it  is  not  easy  for  those  col- 
lege students  who  have  to  earn  a  large  part  of  their  way  through 
college  or  who  are  ambitious  to  win  distinction  while  in  college. 
When  it  is  necessary  for  a  student  to  earn  a  large  part  of  his 
way  through  college,  he  should  restrict  the  range  of  his  ambi- 
tions, and  be  satisfied  with  accomplishing  his  prescribed  work 
satisfactorily.  If  a  student  "goes  in"  for  football,  he  ought  to 
let  someone  else  win  the  honors  in  debating.  A  fellow^  should 
try  to  do  the  thing  which  he  can  do  best,  and  thereby  bring 
honor  to  himself  and  his  college.  A  fellow  should  develop 
morally,  mentally,  and  physically  while  in  college,  so  that  he 
can  be  of  the  greatest  possible  service  to  the  world  when  he  is 
graduated  from  college.  And  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  he 
should  lead  a  normal  life  while  in  college. 

16.  The  deep,  bass  croak  of  8.  frog  broke  the  silence  of  the 
night.  All  was  silent,  except  that  now  and  then  there  came  this 
deep  note  of  this  frog,  and  then,  afterwards,  the  finer  note  of  a 
smaller  frog  higher  vip  the  river. 

17.  To-day  we  were  suiprised  to  find  some  of  our  own  fellow- 
citizens  in  town  again,  who  had  been  in  that  gold-producing 
country,  the  Klondike.  We  recall  the  parting  scenes  when 
they  were  leaving  us  for  those  cold  and  destitute  climes.  How 
they  were  missed  at  home!  How  their  familiar  faces  were 
missed  on  our  streets!  How  we  have  looked  forward  to  and 
longed  for  their  return !  For  us  it  has  been  a  time  of  much 
worry  and  anxiety,  but  for  them  a  time  of  excitement  and 
profit. 

18.  One  Sunday,  I  was  finding  my  way  home  from  church,  on 
the  Illinois  Central  train,  with  two  other  young  ladies.  The 
train  stopped  at  Forty-seventh  street,  which  was  our  place  of 
destination,  and  we  started  to  get  off.  As  it  happened,  the  train 
was  very,  very  crowded.  Many  other  people  were  attempting 
also  to  get  off  at  Forty -seventh  street,  and  therefore  we  had  to 


'  Is  this  word  properly  used?    See  section  58. 


232  coMPOsiTioisr  and  rhetoric 

wait  our  time,  until  we  could  step  off  the  train.  We  were  in 
the  car  next  the  engine,  and  went  to  the  front  end  of  the  car  to 
get  off.  We  three  girls  were  the  end  of  the  stream  of  i^eople 
getting  off.  One  of  the  girls  stepi^ed  off,  and  then,  just  as  I  was 
going  to  step  off,  the  train  started  up.  Seeing  that  it  was  just 
starting,  I  attempted  to  walk  off  on  the  station  platform.  But, 
as  I  stepped  upon  it,  I  found  myself  confronted  with  an  iron 
railing,  which  is  a  railing  up  one  side  of  the  steps  and  a  few  feet 
along  the  platform,  just  where  the  engine  stops.  As  the  engine 
moved  along  a  little,  and  as  I  was  leaving  the  platform  of  the 
car  next  to  the  engine,  I  therefore  encountered  this  railing.  It 
was  a  most  critical  moment ;  I  might  have  been  thrown  back 
against  the  car,  then  daslied  down  under  the  train  and  not  much 
left  of  me  to  tell  this  incident.  But  a  man  who  was  coming 
along  the  platform  from  one  of  the  other  cars,  saw  my  danger, 
and  jumping  forward,  caught  me  and  pulled  me  out  from 
between  the  car  and  the  railing,  upon  the  station  platform.  He 
frightened  me  very  much  by  speaking  very  harshly  and  sharply 
at  what,  I  suppose,  was  my  very  injudicious  act.  After  he  did 
this,  he  hurried  away  and  was  lost  among  the  crowd.  In  my 
fright,  I  had  hardly  time  to  see  him — much  less  to  thank  him 
for  his  kindness. 

After  the  first  moment  of  fright  was  over  and  the  crowd  had 
disappeared  from  the  platform,  my  first  friend  (the  young  lady 
wlio  had  gotten  off)  and  I  looked  at  each  other,  and  feeling  our 
safety,  a  sort  of  reaction  from  our  first  fright  [set  in,  and  we 
looked  at  the  ridiculous  side  of  the  matter.  Here  we  were  on 
the  platform,  looking  after  the  train,  which  was  carrying  our 
other  friend  on  to  the  next  station.  I  don't  suppose  it  was  such 
a  very  ridiculous  situation ;  but  then  it  is  said  that  very  high, 
deep  emotions  in  one  line  are  sometimes  apt  to  turn  to  some  deep 
emotions  of  a  directly  opposite  sort.  This  is  one  reason  I  shall 
give  for  our  laughing  after  it  was  all  over.  Then,  I  suppose  I 
shall  have  to  give  another — that  we  were  foolish  young  girls  and 
suscei^tible  to  such  frivolity. 

Tlie  next  day,  on  pit-king  up  the  newspaper,  we  found  tliis 
little  incident  related  in  a  very  dramatic  style,  but  with  no 
names  given.  There  was  a  decidedly  fabulous  description  of  the 
young  girls  and  of  the  young,  liandsome  hero  who  rescued  them, 
wlio,  the  three  girls  thought,  was  not  a  day  less  than  fifty, 
although  they  couldn't  be  certain,  hardly  having  seen  him. 
Then,  there  was  a  sliar])  comment  on  the  young  girls  for  not 


NUMBER    OF    WORDS  233 

thanking  their  hero,  and  for  the  way  they  laughed  afterwards. 
I  try  to  feel  that  there  was  some  excuse  for  mc,  on  account  of 
not  having  time,  my  fright,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  man 
spoke  to  me ;  yet  I  have  always  felt  this  reproof  keenly,  which 
some  unknown  newspaper  reporter  wrote.  And  they  say  that 
when  we  are  criticised,  we  feel  it  most  when  there  is  some  truth 
in  it. 


CHAPTER   XV 
DISCRIMINATION    IN   THE    CHOICE   OF    WORDS 

102.  Good  Diction  Partly  a  Matter  of  Taste. — No  one  can 

read  mucli  without  becoming  aware  that  some  writers  put 
things  in  a  w^ay  tliat  offends,  while  others  say  the  same 
things  in  a  way  that  charms.  This  difference  in  the  man- 
ner of  statement  we  call  loosely  a  man's  style.  Style  in 
its  widest  sense  covers  many  things — the  wording,  the 
sentence  structure,  the  method  of  arrangement,  even  the 
quality  of  thought.  But  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
difference  that  makes  one  man's  style  attractive  and 
another's  unattractive,  lies  in  the  choice  of  words.  It  is 
worth  while,  then,  to  see  if  we  can  not  discover  wherein 
skill  in  the  choice  of  words  lies.  Definite  rules,  such  aa 
we  found  in  Part  II,  ^ve  can  not  find  here,  for  we  are  now 
face  to  face  Avitli  problems,  not  of  fact,  but  of  taste. 
For  the  moment  we  ai'e  concerned,  not  with  proving  a 
word  right  or  wrong,  but  with  proving  it  appropriate  or 
inappropriate.  And  since  we  know  that  the  style  which 
wou'id  be  proper  in  the  treatment  of  an  adventure  in 
a  mining  camp  would  not  be  proper  in  a  criticism  of 
Lincoln's  Gcttyshurg  Address,  and  that  we  allow  in  bur- 
lesque or  serio-comic  writing  what  we  object  to  in  serious 
work,  we  must  be  prepared  to  acknowledge  our  "rules" 
to  be  at  best  hut  flexible  principles  for  the  application  of 
Avhich  we  must  depend  on  our  own  common  sense  and 
literary  taste. 

103.  "Fine  Writing"  a  Fault.— The  first  rule  for  the 
choice  of  words  is  that,  other  things  being  equal,  we 
should  choose  the  shorter,  simpler  word.     One  reason  for 

334 


DISCRIMINATION    IN   THE    CHOICE    OF    WTORDS        235 

this  is  that,  since  ordinary  prose  aims  most  of  all  to  tell 
facts,  anything  in  ordinary  prose  that  calls  attention  from 
the  thought  to  the  style  is  a  flaw.     Coleridge  says: 

The  words  in  prose  ought  to  express  the  intended  meaning, 
and  no  more ;  if  they  attract  attention  to  themselves,  it  is,  in 
general,  a  fault.  In  the  very  best  styles,  as  Southey's,  you  read 
page  after  page,  understanding  the  author  perfectly,  without 
once  taking  notice  of  the  medium  of  communication : — it  is  as  if 
he  had  been  speaking  to  you  all  the  while.— Coleridge:  Table 
Talk. 

A  second  reason  is  that  conscious  and  obvious  verbal 
finery — "tall-talking"  Thackeray  called  it,  and  the 
rhetorics  call  it  "fine  writing" — makes  the  writer  ridicu- 
lous. People  of  good  literary  taste  dislike  posing  and 
display,  and  admire  genuineness  and  simplicity:  indeed, 
there  is  no  surer  way  for  a  novelist  to  make  a  character 
ridiculous  than  to  make  him  talk  pompously.  Mr.  Micaw- 
ber  is  a  caricature  largely  because  he  always  translates 
simple  statements,  like  "This  reminds  me  of  the  time  when 
I  was  unmarried,"  into  such  large-sounding  diction  as, 
"This  is  a  way  of  life  which  reminds  me  of  the  period 
when  I  was  myself  in  a  state  of  celibacy,  and  Mrs.  Micaw- 
ber  had  not  yet  been  solicited  to  pledge  her  faith  at  the 
Hymeneal  altar." 

"Fine  writing"  takes  a  number  of  forms,  a  few  of 
which  are  treated  below.  But  at  bottom  the  cause  of 
nearly  all  "fine  writing"  is  the  same — a  desire  to  make  the 
mere  wording  of  more  importance  than  the  thought. 

(a)  Euphcmii^m. — One  very  common  form  of  "fine 
writing"  is  euphemism — the  employment  of  circum- 
locutory or  vaguo  expressions  to  hide  a  disagreeable  or 
a  vulgar  fact.  Useful  as  this  device  is,  it  often  produces 
a  phrase  more  offensive  than  the  baldest  statement  would 
be.  Death,  for  instance,  is  cloaked  in  a  number  of  ways, 
some  unobjectionable,  but  some  very  objectionable. 
Hamlet's  "that  bourn  from  which  no  traveller  returns" 


236  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

■was,  before  it  became  hackneyed,  a  fine,  poetic  phrase; 
to  say  that  a  man  has  "expired"  or  "passed  away,"  is 
no  worse  than  weak.  But  to  speak  of  a  dead  man  as  one 
who  has  "fallen  asleep,"  or  "crossed  the  river,"  or  "gone 
before  ns,"  is  to  show  weakness  and  sentimentality  in 
the  use  of  words.  "Casket"  for  "coffin"  seems  to  soms 
peculiarly  objectionable.  Sentimentality,  however,  is 
not  so  bad  as  false  or  affected  modesty.  Facts  which  are 
really  vulgar  may  properly  be  cloaked  under  a  euphemism. 
But  what  shall  we  think  of  the  man  who  says  he  can  not 
go  to  the  opera  "because  of  financial  considerations,"  who 
"performs  ablutions"  instead  of  washing,  who  "retires" 
instead  of  going  to  bed,  and  who  shuns  the  words  "legs" 
and  "sweat"  as  he  would  a  pestilence?  His  horror  of 
naming  the  ordinary  facts  of  life  is  itself  more  vulgar  than 
the  facts  could  possibly  be.^ 

(b)  Kewspapcr  Diction. — Tu  the  use  of  an  elaborateness 
of  phrase  which  serves  no  end  but  that  of  gaudiness,  the 
newspapers  are  particularly  rich.  Mr.  Barrio  puts  the 
matter  concisely: 

"I  am  not  sure  that  I  know  what  the  journalistic  instinct 
precisely  is,"  Rob  said,  "and  still  less  whether  I  possess  it." 

"Ah,  just  let  me  put  you  through  your  paces,"  replied  Simms. 
"Suppose  yourself  up  for  an  exam,  in  journalism,  and  that  I  am 
your  examiner.  Question  One:  'The  house  was  soon  on  fire; 
much  sympathy  is  expressed  with  the  sufferers.'  Can  you 
translate  that  into  newspaper  English?" 

"Let  me  see,"  answered  Rob,  entering  into  the  spirit  of  the 
examination.  "How  would  this  do:  'In  a  moment  the  edifice 
was  enveloped  in  shooting  tongues  of  flame:  the  appalling 
catastrophe  has  plunged  the  wliole  street  into  the  glooni  of 
night"? 

"Good.  Question  Two:  A  man  hangs  himself;  what  is  the 
tecluiical  heading  for  this'?" 

"Either  'Shocking  Occurrence'  or  'Rash  Act.'  " 


'  For  an  interesting  discussion  of  euphemism,  see  Words  and  Their  Ways 
in  English  Speech,  Chapter  XXI. 


DI8CRIMINATI0^"    IK   THE   CHOICE    OF   WORDS        237 

"Question  Three:  'Pahuhim,^  'Cela  va  sans  dire,'  'Par  excel- 
lence,' 'Ne plus  ultra.'  What  are  these?  Are  there  any  more  of 
them?" 

"They  are  scholarship, ""  replied  Rob,  "and  there  are  two  more, 
namely,  'tour  de  force'  and  'terra  firma.'  " — When  a  Man's 
Single. 

In  American  newspapers  "fine  writing"  is  often  used 
with  a  conscious  and  etfective  humor.  But  only  too  often 
newspaper  style  descends  to  the  level  of  the  reporter  who, 
wishing  to  compare  a  certain  dance  to  a  "cake-walk,"  said 
that  it  "suggested  a  processional  contest  for  an  esteemed 
confection. " 

(c)  Oratorical  Diction. — "Orators,"  young  and  old,  are 
too  often  devoted  to  what  they  call  "a  flow  of  language." 
Being  concerned  primarily  with  the  "effect"  they  make 
on  an  audience,  they  often  value  the  sound  more  than  the 
sense.     As  Byron  says: 

I  don't  pretend  that  I  quite  understand 
My  own  meaning  when  I  would  be  very  fine. 

"Mr.  Dooley"  caustically  remarks  that  a  congressman's 
education  is  not  complete  until  "he  says  'sky'  whin  he 
means  'sky,'  an'  not  'the  jooled  canopy  iv  hiven,'  an' 
.  .  .  'Philippeens,'  an'  not  'th'  gloryous  isles  iv  th' 
Passyfic'  "^  But  "jeweled  canopy  of  heaven"  is  moder- 
ate compared  to  the  work  of  some  school  and  college 
"orators"  ;  e.  g. : 

1.  What  mean  these  mutterings  and  thunderings  of  war? 
Are  the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth  to  extract  the  metalliferous 
deposits  of  the  globe  for  the  sake  of  manufacturing  insti'uments 
for  the  destruction  of  mankind? 

2.  The  modern  student  of  history  grants  mental  fealty  to  the 
grand  princij^le  of  evolution.  Geology  makes  evident  that  in 
the  processes  leading  to  this  present  unparalleled  state  of  life, 
one  organic  creation  after  another  has  held  sway.  The  Tiilo- 
bite,  the  giant  Orthoceratite,  the  monster  Amphibians  of  the 


ij//'.  Dooleii'n  Philosophy. 


238  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Mesozoic  age,  ruled  in  their  successive  eras,  and  after  eons  of 
doniinion  ceded  their  position  to  their  undoubted  lord  and  mas- 
ter— man. 

(d)  Sentimental  Phrasing. — Often  "fine  writing"  con- 
sists, not  in  the  use  of  very  big  words,  but  in  primness 
and  sentimentality  of  expression;  e.  g. : 

The  sun  was  throwing  his  declining  beams  from  the  western 
sky,  and  the  evening  breeze  was  sweetly  breathing  around  with 
balmy  breath,  when  my  eyes  fell  on  a  beautiful  patch  of  blooming 
flowers,  whose  grandeur  and  fragrance  drew  me  to  them.  My 
heart  seemed  more  alive  than  usual  to  the  beauty  of  God's  crea- 
tion. I  examined  the  variegated  flowers  with  admiring  wonder. 
I  saw  the  lovely  rose,  the  gaudy  tulip,  the  stately  hollyhock,  the 
magnificent  dahlia,  and  the  gorgeous  anemone.  Then  I  began 
to  reflect.  Were  the  flowers  of  the  world  to  be  taken  away, 
they  would  leave  a  blank  in  creation.  Imagination  cannot  sug- 
gest a  substitute  for  them.  The  stateliest  room  in  the  stateliest 
mansion  must  have  the  flowers  in  the  little  wicker  basket  on  the 
stand.  The  blushing  maiden,  elegantly  dressed,  steals  ever  and 
anon  a  glance  at  the  moss-rosebud  blooming  at  her  breast.  The 
poor,  aged  widow  looks  with  satisfaction  upon  the  bunch  of 
gilliflowers  in  the  window  of  her  cottage.  The  aged  laborer, 
too,  who  held  the  plow  in  his  boyliood,  and  who  now  has  seen 
liis  eightieth  year,  must  have  a  sprig  of  "Sweet  William" "  in  his 
buttonhole.  The  newly  made  grave  is  carpeted  over  with 
flowers  that  manifest  the  resi^cct  and  affection  of  the  living  for 
the  dead.     How  grateful  should  we  be  for  the  gift  of  flowers! 

104.  Triteness   Often   a    Form   of    "Fine   Writing."— 

Inflated  diction  frequently  takes  the  form  of  worn-out, 
conventional  phrases,  phrases  used  simply  because  they 
have  been  long  employed  in  literary  work.  This  fault  is 
called  triteness.  In  trite  diction,  we  find  numbers  of 
words  which,  like  worn-out  coins,  have  lost  sharpness  of 
outline.  With  the  trite  writer,  "elements"  are  always 
being  "eliminated";  all  influences  are  "factors";  all 
houses  are  "residences";  all  courses  of  action  or  thought 
go  on  this  or  that  "line";  all  waltzes  are  "slow  and 
dreamy";    all    moonlight    scenes    are    "fairy-like";     all 


DISCRIMINATION"    IN   THE    CHOICE   OF   WORDS        239 

mountains  are  "grand"  ;  all  sunsets  are  "gorgeous" ;  all 
teachers  are  "broad  thinkers  and  noted  educators";  all 
boys  and  girls  are  "gay  youths  and  happy  maidens' ' ;  every 
hero  has  "striking  features";  and  all  rivers  "go  dancing 
along  with  many  a  ripple."  Trite  writers  do  not  happen 
to  see — they  "have  the  good  fortune  to  witness";  they 
do  not  share — they  "partake";  they  see,  not  waves,  but 
"billows";  they  do  not  look  on  a  bit  of  country,  but 
they  "drink  in  a  landscape."  Such  writing  is  obviously 
silly,  yet  many  passages  quite  as  bad  can  be  found.  More- 
over, even  though  we  do  not  often  find  in  one  place  so 
many  conventional  phrases,  ordinary  writing  is  full  of 
such  passages  as  the  following,  in  which  the  worn-out 
diction  takes  away  all  force: 

The  niglit  was  a  perfect  one.  All  nature  seemed  to  have 
united  in  making  that  party  a  success.  The  stars  twinkled  so 
fast  that  they  appeared  to  be  trying  to  outdo  each  other  in  shin- 
ing their  brightest.  The  weather  was  warm  and  balmy.  Tlie 
lake  was  so  calm  and  clear  and  bright  tliat  it  looked  like  an 
immense  mirror.  On  either  side,  and  at  the  fartlier  end  of  the 
lake,  all  was  dark,  save  where  here  and  there  a  light  from  some 
cottage  window  penetrated  through  the  thickness  of  the  wood, 
or  the  lantern  on  the  prow  of  some  boat  shone  merrily  out  as  the 
boat  glided  along  over  the  rippling  waves.  There  was  music  to 
the  ear  in  the  graceful  lapping  of  the  waves  on  the  distant  shore. 

Contrast  with  the  conventionality  and  insincerity  of  the 
preceding  extract,  the  freshness  and  naturalness  of  the 
following  one : 

There  is  one  day  when  all  things  are  tired,  and  the  very 
smells,  as  they  drift  on  the  heavy  air,  are  old  and  used.  One 
cannot  explain  this,  but  it  feels  so.  Then  there  is  another  day — 
to  the  eye  nothing  whatever  lias  changed — when  all  the  smells 
are  new  and  delightful,  and  the  whiskei's  of  the  Jungle  People 
quiver  to  their  roots,  and  the  winter  hair  comes  away  from  their 
sides  in  long,  draggled  locks.  Then,  perhaps,  a  little  rain  falls, 
and  the  trees  and  the  bushes  and  the  bamboos  and  the  mos.ses 
and  the  juicy  leaved  plants  wake  with  a  noi.se  of  growing  tliat 


240  COMPOSITIOli]"    AND    RHETORIC 

you  can  almost  heai*,  and  under  this  noise  runs,  day  and  night,  a 
deep  hum.  That  is  the  noise  of  the  spring— a  vibrating  boom 
which  is  neither  bees,  nor  falling  water,  nor  the  wind  in  tree 
tops,  but  the  purring  of  the  warm,  happy  world. — Kipling  :  The 
Second  Jungle  Book. 

105.  The  Value  of  Simplicity. — The  inflation  charac- 
teristic of  "fine  writing"  often  comes  from  a  belief  that  big 
ideas  demand  big  words.  In  point  of  fact,  the  more 
important  or  touching  the  subject  matter,  the  simpler 
should  be  the  diction.  Of  Pilgrim^s  Progress,  Coleridge, 
an  excellent  critic  of  diction,  writes  as  follows : 

The  Pilgrini's  Progress  is  composed  in  the  lowest  style  of 
English,  without  slang  or  false  grammar.  If  you  were  to  polish 
it,  you  would  at  once  destroy  the  reality  of  the  vision.  For 
works  of  the  imagination  should  be  written  in  very  plain  lan- 
guage; the  more  purely  imaginative  they  are  the  more  neces- 
sary it  is  to  be  plain. — Coleridge:  Table  Talk. 

The  following  three  extracts  all  deal  with  subjects  of 
importance,  which  gave  every  chance  for  the  use  of  "fine 
writing."  All  are  extremely  effective;  yet  all  are  written 
in  the  simplest  diction : 

1.  He  was  still  liandsome,  this  great-hearted  friend  of  ours, 
although  disease  had  whitened  his  face  and  made  necessary  a 
sujjporting  cane.  When  I  came  away,  he  took  my  hand  in  his 
and  said,  half  jestingly,  half  earne.stly,  "Good-bye.  God  bless 
you!"     I  tried  to  smile,  but  couldn't. 

At  Christmas  I  stood  beside  his  grave.  The  funeral  flowers 
had  withered,  but  I  saw,  shining  through  them,  the  green  leaves 
and  the  red  berries  of  a  holly  wreath. 

2.  When  I  put  my  pen  to  the  paper  I  did  not  know  the  first 
word  that  I  should  make  use  of  in  writing  the  terms.  I  only 
knew  what  was  in  my  mind,  and  I  wished  to  express  it  clearly, 
so  that  there  could  be  no  mistaking  it.  As  I  wrote  on,  the 
thought  occurred  to  me  that  the  officers  had  their  own  private 
horses  and  effects,  which  were  important  to  them,  but  of  no 
value  to  us;  also  that  it  would  be  an  unnecessary  humiliation  to 
call  upon  them  to  deliver  their  side  arms. 

No  conversation,  not  one  word,  passed  between  General  Lee 


DISCRIMIXATION    IX    THE    CHOICE    OF    AVOKDS        241 

and  myself,  either  about  private  property,  side  arms,  or  kindred 
subjects.  He  appeared  to  have  no  objections  to  the  terms  first 
proposed;  or  if  he  had  a  point  to  make  against  them,  he  wished 
to  wait  until  they  were  in  writing  to  make  it.  When  lie 
read  over  that  part  of  the  terms  about  side  arms,  horses,  and 
private  property  of  the  oflficers,  he  remarked,  ^itli  some  feeling, 
I  thought,  that  this  would  have  a  happy  effect  upon  his  army. 

Tlien,  after  a  little  further  conversation,  General  Lee  remarked 
to  me  again  that  their  army  was  organized  a  little  differently 
from  the  army  of  the  United  States  (still  maintaining  by  implica- 
tion that  we  were  two  countries) ;  that  in  their  army  the  cavalry 
men  and  artillerists  owned  their  horses;  and  lie  asked  if  lie  was 
to  vmderstand  tliat  the  men  who  so  owned  their  horses  were 
to  be  permitted  to  retain  them.  I  told  liim  that  as  the  terms  were 
written  they  would  not;  that  only  the  officers  were  permitted 
to  take  their  private  property.  He  then,  after  reading  over  tlie 
terms  a  second   time,  remarked  that    that  was  clear. 

I  then  said  to  liiin  that  I  tliought  this  would  be  about  the  last 
battle  of  the  war — I  sincerely  hoped  so;  and  I  said  further  I 
took  it  tliat  most  of  the  men  in  the  ranks  were  small  farmers. 
The  whole  country  had  been  so  raided  by  the  two  armies  that  it 
was  doubtful  whether  they  would  be  able  to  pnt  in  a  crop  to 
carry  themselves  and  their  families  tlirough  the  next  winter 
without  the  aid  of  the  horses  they  were  then  riding.  The  United 
States  did  not  want  them  and  I  would,  therefore,  instruct  tlie 
officers  I  left  behind  to  receive  the  paroles  of  his  troops,  to  let 
every  man  of  the  Confederate  army  wlio  cdaimed  to  own  a  horse 
or  mule  take  the  animal  to  his  home.  Lee  remarked  again 
that  this  would  have  a  happy  effect.  — U.  S.  Grant:  Personal 
Memoirs. 

3.  I  have  placed  j'ou  at  the  head  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
Of  course  I  have  done  this  upon  what  a[)pears  to  me  to  be  suffi- 
cient reasons,  and  yet  I  think  it  best  for  you  to  know  that  there 
are  some  things  in  regard  to  which  I  am  not  quite  satisfied  with 
you.'  I  believe  you  to  be  a  brave  and  skillful  soldier,  which,  of 
course,  I  like.  I  also  believe  you  do  not  mix  politics  with  your 
profession,  in  which  you  are  riglit.  You  liave  confidence  in 
yourself,  which  is  a  valuable,  if  not  an  indisi^ensable,  qualitj'. 
You  are  ambitious,  which,  witliin  rea,sonable  bounds,  does  good 
rather  than  harm ;  but  I  think  that,  during  General  Burnsides 
command  of  the  army,  you  have  taken  counsel  of  your  ambition, 
and  thwarted  him  as  much  as  you  could,  in   which  j'ou  did  a 


242  COMPOSITIOX    A^TD    RHETORIC 

great  wrong  to  the  country  and  to  a  most  meritorious  and  honor- 
able brother  officer.  I  have  heard,  in  such  a  way  as  to  believe 
it,  of  your  recently  saying  that  both  the  army  and  the  govern- 
ment needed  a  dictator.  Of  course,  it  was  not  for  this,  but  in 
spite  of  it,  that  I  have  given  you  the  command.  Only  those 
generals  who  gain  successes  can  set  up  dictators.  What  I  now 
ask  of  you  is  military  success,  and  I  will  risk  the  dictatorship. 
The  government  will  support  you  to  the  utmost  of  its  ability, 
vrhich  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  it  has  done  and  will  do  for 
ail  commanders.  I  much  fear  that  the  spirit,  which  you  have 
aided  to  infuse  into  the  army,  of  criticising  their  commander 
and  withholding  confidence  from  him,  will  now  turn  upon  you. 
I  shall  assist  you  so  far  as  I  can  to  put  it  down.  Neither  you 
nor  Napoleon,  if  he  were  alive  again,  could  get  any  good  out  of 
an  army  while  sucli  a  spirit  prevails  in  it.  And  now  beware  of 
rashness.  Beware  of  rashness,  but  with  energy  and  sleepless 
vigilance  go  forward  and  give  us  victories. — Abraham  Lin'COLN: 
Letter  to  General  Hooker. 

106.  The    Suggestive   Power    of  Words. — Most   of    us 

think  we  have  a  full  understanding  of  a  word  if  we  know 
its  dictionary  meaning.  But  the  dictionary  meaning  is 
by  no  means  the  only  significance  a  word  has.  Hardly  a 
word  in  the  language,  apart  from  mere  verbal  links,  but 
has  a  kind  of  secondary  meaning,  a  fringe  of  suggestion 
which  rhetoricians  call  its  connotation.  "Fist"  is  a 
case  in  point: 

Thus  the  word  fist  means  simply  'the  hand  with  the  fingers 
doubled  up  against  the  palm. '  In  the  idiomatic  comparison  'as 
big  as  your  fist,'  it  is  purely  descriptive,  and  has  no  particular 
character,  good  or  bad.  The  use  of  the  fist  in  fighting,  however, 
has  given  a  peculiar  connotation  to  the  term.  We  may  say,  'He 
hit  his  opponent  with  his  clenched  fist,'  for  here  again  fist  is 
purely  descriptive  and  occurs  in  an  appropriate  environment. 
Similarly,  we  may  say  'The  boy  cried  dismally,  wiping  his  eyes 
with  his  dingy  fist,'  for  here  there  is  a  certain  grotesqueness  in 
the  .scene  wliich  justifies  the  use  of  undignified  language.  But 
we  can  no  longer  say,  as  was  formerly  possible,  'The  lady  held 
a  lily  in  her  delicate  fist.'  In  other  words,  tlie  associations  of 
fist  are  either  pugnacious,  vulgar,  or  jocose. — Greenough  and 
KiTTREDQE:   Words  and  Their  Waijs  in  English  Speech. 


DISCRIMINATION    IN   THE   CHOICE    OF   WORDS        243 

"Pate"  is  another  case  in  point.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  word  should  not  be  used  in  serious  writing  except 
that  it  arouses  suggestions  of  the  ludicrous.  "Lush,"  on 
the  other  hand,  has  such  distinctly  poetical  associations 
that  its  use  in  the  more  matter-of-fact  kinds  of  prose 
would  startle  us — the  writer  would  seem  affected. 

Indeed,  the  connotation  of  words  is  so  real  a  thing  that 
a  group  of  words  may  have  a  significance  not  to  be  made  out 
from  any  piecing  together  of  the  literal  meanings  of  the 
words.  If  we  analyze  Hawthorne's  reference  to  "the 
swarthy  whiteness"  of  Judge  Pyncheon's  face,  it  involves 
an  absurdity.  Yet  we  know,  as  soon  as  we  read  the 
phrase,  that  it  is  a  touch  from  a  master-hand.  The  matter 
shows  most  plainly  in  poetry,  which  is,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  more  dependent  on  suggestion  tha..  is  prose. 
Take  two  lines  from  Keats : 

The  sedge  has  withered  from  the  lake, 
And  no  birds  sing. 

— La  Belle  Davie  sans  Merci. 

No  one  has  understood  the  lines  who  has  not  read  into 
them  the  idea  that  the  scene  is  one  of  brown  desolation. 
Or  take  one  of  Browning's  shorter  poems: 


MEMORABILIA 

1 

Ah,  did  you  once  see  Shelley  plain, 
And  did  lie  stop  and  speak  to  you, 

And  did  you  speak  to  liini  again? 
How  strange  it  seems,  and  newt 


But  you  were  living  before  that, 
And  also  you  are  living  after ; 

And  the  memory  I  started  at — 
My  starting  moves  your  laughter  I 


244  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

3 

I  crossed  a  moor,  with  a  name  of  its  own 
And  a  certain  use  in  the  world,  no  doubt, 

Yet  a  hand's-breadth  of  it  shines  alone 
'Mid  the  blank  miles  round  about: 


For  there  I  picked  up  on  the  heather 

And  there  I  put  inside  my  breast 
A  moulted  feather,  an  eagle-feather! 

Well,  I  forget  the  rest.  —Browning. 

In  plain  prose,  "If  you  saw  Shelley  and  did  not  remem- 
ber it  as  one  of  the  great  events  of  your  life,  you  are  a 
blockhead." 

Clearly,  if  we  would  choose  our  words  skillfully,  we 
must  be  careful  what  train  of  associations  they  arouse  in 
the  reader's  mind.  Has  the  word  been  overused?  Thou 
it  will  suggest  staleness  of  thought.  Is  it  pompous? 
Then  the  reader  will  suspect  that  the  writer  is  pompons 
too.  Does  it  convey  a  meaning  inconsistent  with  that 
which  the  writer  wishes  to  convey?  Then  the  sentence  is 
either  ambiguous  or  ludicrous.  Good  style  employs  a 
diction  accurate  in  meaning  and  both  rich  and  accurate 
in  suggestion. 

107.  Specific  and  General  Words. — One  way  of  giving 
our  style  suggestiveness  is  the  use,  wlienever  possible,  of 
a  specific  rather  than  a  general  word.  The  words  which 
name  a  class  of  objects  or  ideas  are  general;  the  words 
which  name  the  individuals  of  those  classes  are  specific. 
1'he  term  "unpleasant,"  for  example,  is  a  general  word, 
which  may  be  trjinslated  into  any  one  of  a  number  of 
more  specific  words — "ill-tempered,"  "ill-mannered,"  or 
"grotesquely  ugly."  The  process  might  be  carried  even 
further,  until  we  got  just  the  kind  of  unpleasantness 
meant.  Obviously,  general  words  are  a  necessity  when  we 
wish  to  name  classes  of  objects.     If,  instead  of  using  the 


DISCKIMINATION"   IN   THE   CHOICE    OF   "WORDS        245 


word  "mammal,"  we  had  to  name  the  varioiTS  animals  of 
this  order  every  time  we  wished  to  refer  to  the  class, 
writing  would  be  impossible.  But,  making  all  due  allow- 
ance for  the  usefulness  of  general  words,  it  is  true  that  a 
writer  whose  habit  of  mind  is  such  that  he  phrases  all 
things  as  generalities  will  not  be  so  clear  or  forcible  as  the 
one  who  uses  a  liberal  in-oportion  of  specific  terms.  The 
matter  will  be  clearer  for  examples : 

1.  We  do  not  find  much  com-  1.  It    was    not    much    of   a 

fort  in  those  systems  of  the-  creed.  It  only  proved  that 
ology  which  lack  provision  for      men  had  no  souls,   and  there 


the  future  existence  of  man. 
They  leave  us  no  principle  of 
conduct  except  that  of  regard 
for  our  fellow-beings. 

2.  A  similarity  of  tastes 
implies  social  equality.  If 
you  change  the  economic  con- 
dition of  a  man,  you  inspire 
in  Iiim  a  disinclination  for  his 
former  status.  If  you  take  a 
man  whose  tastes  are  low  and 
cultivate  in  him  a  taste  for 
higher  things,  you  make  him  a 
gentleman,  and  he  will  not  re- 
sixme  his  former  occuiDation. 


3.  Taste  is  not  only  a  part 
and  an  index  of  morality — it  is 
the  only  morality.     The  first, 


was  no  God  and  no  hereafter, 
and  that  you  must  worry  along 
somehow  for  the  good  of  hu- 
manity.— Kipling:  The  Con- 
version o^Aurelian  McGoggin. 

2.  The  man  who  likes  what 
you  like,  belongs  to  the  same 
class  with  you,  I  think.  Inevi- 
tably so.  You  may  put  him  to 
other  work  if  j'ou  choose;  but, 
by  the  condition  you  have 
brought  him  into,  he  will  dis- 
like the  other  work  as  much  as 
you  would  yourself.  You  get 
hold  of  a  scavenger,  or  a  coster- 
monger,  who  enjoyed  the  New- 
gate Calendar  for  literature, 
and  "Pop  goes  the  weasel"  for 
mu.sic.  You  think  you  can 
make  him  like  Dante  and  Bee- 
thoven? I  wish  you  joy  of 
your  lessons ;  but  if  you  do,  you 
have  made  a  gentleman  of 
him: — he  won't  like  to  go  back 
to  his  costermongering. — Rus- 
KIX:  The  Croum  of  Wild  Olive. 

3.  Taste  is  not  only  a  part 
and  an  index  of  morality — 
it  is  the  only  morality.    The 


246 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


and  last,  and  closest  trial  ques- 
tion to  any  living  creature  is, 
"What  do  you  like?"  Tell  me 
what  you  like,  and  I  will  tell 
you  what  you  are.  Go  out 
into  the  street  and  ask  the  first 
man  or  woman  you  meet,  wliat 
their  "taste"  is,  and  if  tliey 
answer  candidly,  you  know 
them,  body  and  soul.  If  they 
indicate  a  preference  for  low 
things,  then  their  tastes  and 
morality  are  low ;  if  they  indi- 
cate a  preference  for  noble  and 
natural  things,  then  their 
tastes  and  morality  are  high. 


first,  and  last,  and  closest 
trial  question  to  any  living 
creature  is,  "What  do  you 
hke?"  Tell  me  what  you  like, 
and  I'll  tell  you  what  you 
are.  Go  out  into  the  street, 
and  ask  the  first  man  or  v.-oman 
you  meet,  what  their  "taste"' 
is,  and  if  they  answer  can- 
didly, you  know  them,  body 
and  soul.  "You,  my  friend  in 
the  rags,  with  the  unsteady 
gait,  what  do  you  like?"  "A 
pipe  and  a  quartern  of  gin." 
I  know  you.  "You,  good  wo- 
man with  the  quick  step  and 
tidy  bonnet,  what  do  you 
*  like?"     "A  swept  hearth  and  a 

clean  tea-table,  and  my  hus- 
band opposite  me,  and  a  baby 
at  my  breast."  /Good,  I  know 
you  also.  "You,  little  girl  with 
the  golden  hair  and  the  soft 
eyes,  what  do  you  like?"  "My 
canary,  and  a  run  among  the 
wood  hyacinths."  "You, 
little  boy  with  the  dirty  hands 
and  the  low  forehead,  what  do 
you  like?"  "A  shy  at  the 
sparrows  and  a  game  at  pitch 
farthing."  Good;  we  know 
them  all  now.  What  more 
need  we  ask? — Ibid. 

108.  Figures  of  Speech  an  Aid  to  Suggestion.— A  wise 
use  of  figures  of  speech  tends  to  make  u  style  suggestive. 
A  figure  of  speech,  or  trope,  is  the  use  of  a  word  in  some 
sense  not  exactly  literal.  When,  for  instance,  a  student 
wrote  that  "Schoolboys  take  in  information  very  unwill- 
ingly, like  kittens  whose  eyes  must  be  opened  prematurely 
with  a  pin,"  he  used  a  figure  of  speech.     So  did  the 


DISCKIMIXATION    IX    THE    CHOICE    OF    WORDS        247 

western  stage-driver,  who,  explaining  how  his  horses  fell 
over  one  another  going  downhill,  said,  "The  wheelers 
just  jackknifed  on  the  leaders."  How  important  a  part 
figures  play  in  style  will  be  clear  from  an  examination  of 
the  following  passage,  in  which  the  various  figures  of 
speech  are  italicized.  It  will  be  noted  that  many  words 
not  at  first  recognizable  as  tropes  are  in  reality  figures  of 
speech.  A  good  figure,  like  those  in  the  following 
example,  springs  so  naturally  out  of  the  thought  and  is 
so  simple  and  consistent,  that  we  hardly  recognize  it  as  a 
literary  device: 

To  visit  the  woods  while  they  are  langnidly  burning  is  a 
strange  piece  of  experience.  The  fire  passes  tlirougli  the  under- 
brush at  a  run.  Every  here  and  there  a  tree  flares  up  instanta- 
neously from  root  to  summit,  scattering  tufts  of  flame,  and  is 
quenched,  it  seems,  as  quickly.  But  tliis  last  is  only  in  sem- 
blance. For  after  this  first  squib-like  conflagration  of  the  dry 
moss  and  twigs,  there  remains  behind  a,  deep-rooted  and  consimi- 
ing  fire  in  the  very  entrails  of  the  tree.  The  resin  of  the  pitch- 
pine  is  principally  condensed  at  the  base  of  the  bole  and  in  the 
spreading  roots.  Thus,  after  the  light,  showij,  skirmishing 
flames,  which  are  only  as  the  match  to  the  explosion,  have 
already  scampered  down  the  ivind  into  the  distance,  the  true 
liarm  is  but  beginning  for  this  giant  of  the  woods.  You  may 
approach  the  tree  from  one  side,  and  see  it,  scorched  indeed  from 
top  to  bottom,  but  apparently  a  survivor  of  the  peril.  Make  the 
circuit,  and  there,  on  the  other  side  of  the  column,  is  a  clear 
mass  of  living  coal,  spreading  like  an  tdcer;  while  underground, 
to  their  most  extended  fibre,  the  roots  are  being  eaten  out  by 
fii-e,  and  the  smoke  is  rising  through  the  fissures  to  the  surface. — 
Stevenson:  Across  the  Plains. 

109.  The  Faults  of  Figurative  Diction. — Any  conscious 
striving  for  figures  of  speech,  however,  is  almost  certain 
to  be  disastrous.  Good  figures  will  suggest  themselves 
naturally — will  be  simple,  appropriate,  and  self-con- 
sistent. If  the  writer  sets  himself  the  task  of  Avriting 
figuratively,  he  is  in  great  danger  of  employing  figures 
which  are  inappropriate,  exaggerated,  or  "mixed"  (i.  e., 


248  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

a  fusion  of  two  conflicting  figures).  In  sucli  cases  he 
overshoots  his  mark  and  is  in  a  worse  plight  than  if  he 
had  used  no  figure  at  alh  The  figures  cited  below  illus- 
trate these  faults : 

1.  Coy  .spring  was  about  to  make  its  debut. 

2.  The  peojile  of  this  country,  without  regard  to  party,  are  to 
be  congratulated  that  the  time  is  at  hand  for  the  dying  embers 
of  democracy  to  tuck  their  shrouds  about  them  and  hie  them  to 
their  tomb. 

3.  Tlie  inaudible  foot  of  time  has  left  its  imprint  on  the  old 
man's  forehead. 

4.  The  jmle  hand  of  death  stalked  into  our  midst  last  week 
and  fastened  its  cruel  eyes  on  little  Mary. 

5.  Thus  English,  like  symbolic  truth,  though  crushed  to 
earth  by  the  powerful  influences  of  tlie  intruding  tongues, 
Danish  and  Norman,  rose  again  in  simple  majesty,  with  the 
rags  and  tags  cast  upon  it  by  foreign  tongues  clinging  about 
its  puny  limbs,  weak  from  disuse.  And  this  language,  with  its 
story  of  ojipression,  endurance,  and  linal  victory,  is  our  heritage 
to-day. 

6.  In  tliis  pictiu'esque  garb,  in  this  coat  of  many  colors,  in 
these  garments  with  which  not  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory 
was  arrayed,  in  the  shreds  and  rags  fi"om  every  tongue  flung 
upon  her  in  the  process,  comes  tliis,  our  language,  and  claims  us 
liers.  And  as  we  have  been  under  her  motherly  instruction  ever 
since  she  was  the  nurse  of  our  childhood,  we  joyfully  claim  her 
ours,  and  assert  that  she  is  the  noblest  language  on  earth.  Per- 
liaps  she  is.     Who  knows? 

7.  Think  of  a  i)oor,  innocent,  young  woman's  liaving  poured 
forth  her  whole  life,  and,  as  it  were,  propped  it  against  that  of 
another,  only  to  have  tlie  support  suddenly  torn  away ! 

8.  The  General  stumbled  over  a  bullet  into  eternity. 

9.  If  Erasmus  was  the  intellect  for  the  Reformation,  Luther 
was  the  throbbing  heart  tliat  beat  off  the  fetters  of  fear  and 
superstition  in  that  dark  age,  the  lion-liearted  who  dared  in  tlie 
face  of  death  to  reacli  far  down  thi'ougli  the  black  night,  and, 
Iiglitingthe  torcli  of  everlasting  truth,  to  lift  it  in  the  vallej' 
l)elo\v.  wliicli  we  may  c^all  the  heart.  Tlien  these  two  mighty 
forces  become  the  metidow-stream  of  glorious  life,  rippling  over 
tlie  pel)bles,  sparkling  in  the  sunshine,  mirroring  the  heaven 
and   i)ai))Ling  the   flowers,    refreshiug  travelers,   turning  mill 


DISCKIMIN-ATIOX    I:N'   THE    CHOICE    OF   WORDS        249 

wheels,  and  finally  losing  itself  in  the  infinite  ocean.     Such  is  a 
useful  life. 

10.  I  have  gathered  welcomes  from  a  thousand  hearts  in  Ten 
nessee,  and  I  have  pre.ssed  them  into  a  perfumed  bombshell  of 
smiles  and  kisses.  I  light  the  fuse  and  to.ss  it  from  my  lips ;  it 
explodes  above  this  beautiful  audience  and  scatters  in  the  air  a 
million  sweet  forget-me-nots,  and  they  come  floating  down  and 
fall  into  the  hearts  of  all  who  love  their  homes  and  their  country. 

11.  In  criticising  this  book,  I  shall  attempt  to  expose  one 
fault,  merely  for  the  sake  of  variety ;  then,  as  a  rose  covers  uj) 
its  inner  mass  of  imperfect  petals  by  tier  after  tier  of  mature 
ones,  producing  the  glorious  result,  I  shall  hide  this  fault  by  an 
enumeration  of  the  merits  of  the  book. 

13.  Washington  and  Hamilton  were  at  this  time  driving  the 
ship  of  state  Washington  had  hold  of  the  reins — the  constitu- 
tion ;'Hamilton  used  the  whip — the  doctrine  of  unified  powers. 

110.  Accuracy  and  Individuality  in  Our  Choice  of 
"Words. — The  sum  and  substance  of  any  chapter  on  the 
choice  of  words  must  be  this:  to  write  well,  one  must 
choose  his  words  with  an  eye  to  correctness,  appropriate- 
ness, and,  so  far  as  may  be,  individuality.  Of  a  dozen 
words  all  nearly  identical  in  meaning,  and  all  possible  in 
a  given  passage,  probably  only  one  word  will  be  exactly 
appropriate.  In  most  cases  we  never  find  just  the  word 
desired.  When  we  do,  our  style  goes  at  a  bound  from  the 
commonplace  to  the  individual,  from  the  merely  clear  to 
the  forcible.  The  perplexity  of  the  hero  of  Sentimentcd 
Tommy  as  to  the  expression  he  should  use  to  indicate  the 
size  of  a  given  crowd,  hindered  him,  to  be  sure,  from 
finishing  an  essay  in  the  set  time  and  lost  him  a  prize, 
but  it  marked  him  as  a  boy  with  definite  capabilities  for 
writing. 

[Tommy  and  McLaughlin,  two  Scotch  peasant  boys,  are  com- 
peting for  the  prize  of  a  scholarship  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. At  the  end  of  the  two  hours  allowed  for  writing  the 
essay  on  which  the  prize  is  to  be  given,  McLaughlin  hands  in  a 
complete  production,  but  Tommy  has  stuck  in  the  middle  of  his 
second  page.] 


250  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

He  had  brought  hhnself  to  public  scorn  for  lack  of  a  word. 
What  word?  they  asked  testily,  but  even  now  he  could  not  tell- 
He  had  wanted  a  Scotch  word  that  would  signify  how  many 
people  were  in  church,  and  it  was  on  the  tip  of  his  tongue  but 
would  come  no  farther.  Puckle  was  nearly  the  word,  but  it  did 
not  mean  so  many  people  as  he  meant.  The  hour  had  gone  by 
just  like  winking;  he  had  forgotten  all  about  time  while  .search- 
ing his  mind  for  the  word. 

"You  little  tattie  doolie,"'  Catliro  roared,  "were  there  not  a 
dozen  words  to  wile  from  if  you  had  an  ill-will  to  puckle?  What 
ailed  j'ou  at  manzy,  or " 

"I  thought  of  manzy,"  replied  Tommy,  woefully,  for  he  was 
ashamed  of  himself,  "but — but  a  manzy 's  a  swarm.  It  would 
mean  that  the  folk  in  the  kirk  were  buzzing  thegither  like  bees, 
instead  of  sitting  still." 

"Even  if  it  does  mean  that,"  said  Mr.  Duthie,  with  imi^a- 
tience,  "what  was  the  need  of  being  .so  particular?  Surely  the 
art  of  essay-writing  consists  in  using  the  tirst  word  that  conies 
and  hurrying  on." 

"That's  how  I  did,"  said  the  proud  McLaughlin,  who  is  now 
leader  of  a  party  in  the  church,  and  a  figure  in  Edinburgh  dur- 
ing the  month  of  May. 

"I  see,"  interposed  Mr.  Gloag,  "that  McLaughlin  speaks  of 
there  being  a  mask  of  people  in  the  church.  Mask  is  a  fine 
Scotch  word." 

"Admirable,"  assented  Mr.  Dishart. 

"I  thought  of  mask,"  whimpered  Tommy,  "but  that  would 
mean  the  kirk  was  crammed,  and  I  jvist  meant  it  to  be  middling 
full." 

"Flow  would  have  done,"  .suggested  Mr.  Lorimer. 

"Flow's  but  a  handful,"  said  Tommy. 

"Curran,  then,  you  jackanapes!" 

"Curran's  no  enough." 

Mr.  Lorimer  flung  up  his  hands  in  despair. 

"I  wanted  something  between  curran  and  mask,"  said 
Tommy,  dogged,  yet  almost  at  the  crying. 

3Ir.  Ogilvy,  who  had  been  hiding  his  admiration  vritli  diffi- 
culty, spread  a  net  for  him.  "You  said  you  wanted  a  word  that 
meant  middling  full.  Well,  why  did  you  not  say  middling 
full— or  fell  mask?" 

"Yes,  why  not?"  demanded  the  ministers,  unconsciously 
caught  iu  the  not. 


DISCRIMIISrATION    IN    THE    CHOICE    OF    WORDS        251 

"I  wanted  one  word,"  replied  Tommy,  unconsciously  avoid- 
ing it. 

"You  jewel!"  muttered  Mr.  Ogilvy  under  his  breath,  but  Mr. 
Cathro  would  have  banged  the  boy's  head  had  not  the  ministers 
interfered. 

"It  is  so  easy,  too,  to  find  the  right  word,"  said  Mr.  Gloag. 

"It's  no;  it's  as  difficult  as  to  hit  a  squirrel,"  cried  Tommy, 
and  again  Mr.  Ogilvy  nodded  approval. 

But  the  ministers  were  only  pained. 

"The  lad  is  merely  a  numskull,''  said  Mr.  Dishart,  kindly. 

"And  no  teacher  could  have  turned  him  into  anything  else," 
said  Mr.  Duthie. 

"And  so,  Cathro,  you  need  not  feel  sore  over  your  defeat," 
added  Mr.  Gloag;  but  nevertheless  Cathro  took  Tommy  by  the 
neck  and  ran  him  out  of  the  parish  school  of  Thrums. 

And  then  an  odd  thing  happened  As  they  were  preparing  to 
leave  tlie  school,  the  door  opened  a  little  and  there  appeared  in 
the  aperture  the  face  of  Tommy,  tear-stained,  but  excited.  "I 
ken  the  word  now,"  he  cried,  "it  came  to  me  a' at  once;  it  is 
hantle!" — Barrie:  Sentimental  Tommy  (condensed). 

We  can  not  often  hesitate  so  long  as  this  over  a  single 
vv^ord,  but  we  can  all  strive  to  make  our  phrases  fit  accu- 
rately the  thing  we  are  talking  abont.  If  we  do  that,  our 
diction  is  likely  to  bo  appropriate,  individual,  and,  hence, 
effective. 

Exercise  XV 

A.  In  what  do  the  directions  given  in  this  chapter 
differ  from  those  given  in  Part  II? 

B.  What  is  "fine  writing"?  Give  some  common  exam- 
ples of  "fine"  phrases.  Why  is  the  simpler  style  usually 
the  better?  In  what  kinds  of  writing  is  a  lack  of  simplicity 
absolutely  destructive  of  force? 

C.  What  are  the  equivalents,  in  plain  English,  of  the 
following  extracts? 

1.  He  came  out  making  cii'cles  with  his  body,  not  unlike  a  cat 
in  pursuit  of  her  appendage. 

2.  The  attorneys  on  both  sides  and  the  public  at  large  watched 


253  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

for  tlie  decision  of  the  jury  witli  .all  the  eagerness  of  the  orchid 
luniter  waiting  for  tlie  opening  of  anew  bud  of  strange  form. 
Would  it  evolve  delicious  blossom  of  freedom  and  peace,  or 
would  it  produce  the  deadly  nightshade,  distilling  doom  into  the 
prisoner's  cup?  Might  it  not  rather  open  as  a  nondescript  mass 
of  doubt  and  disagreement,  the  apple  of  discord  putting  fortli  a 
blossom  as  the  old-fashioned  golden  apple  of  mythological 
times?    Rumor  hinted  that  it  was  the  same. 

3.  The  water  jjipes  refused  to  yield  their  accustomed  donation 
to  the  household  activities. 

4.  lie  had  either  been  murdered,  or  had  suddenly  and  unac- 
countabh'  lost  his  mental  equilibrium  and  wandered  away. 

5.  Having  partaken  too  freely  of  the  cup  that  cheers,  the 
individual  in  question  experienced  some  difficult}'  in  preserving 
the  perpendicular. 

6.  Oh !  let  us  strive  to  be  men  that  have  decision  of  character 
and  not  let  the  gentle  breezes  of  delusions,  the  cyclonic  winds  of 
gossip,  the  great  hurricanes  of  skepticism,  carry  us  asunder, 
deflect  us  from  the  paths  of  our  true  motives,  and  hurl  us  to  the 
great  oblivion  of  non-progi-essiveness  and  ignominious  defeat. 

7.  Dr.  Moore,  it  will  be  remembered,  has  encountered  a  singu. 
larly  persistent  and  malevolent  train  of  misfortunes  in  politics. 
It  was  not  long  ago  that  one  William  B.  Grover's^Corsican 
poniard  became  interpolated  in  his  clavicle,  and  some  time 
previouslj-  3Ir.  James  Wan-en  thrust  a  painful,  horizontal  whisker 
of  contumely  into  his  self-respect  by  requesting  him  to  get  off 
the  earth  as  a  proper  preliminarj'  to  an  important  mayoral 
campaign  in  which  Dr.  Moore  had  thought  of  taking  more 
than  cursory  interest. 

8.  When  the  Hollenbeck  member  got  into  action  in  earnest, 
the  game  was  still  young— a  lusty  infant  of  twenty-six  minutes. 

Then  Hollenbeck's  leg  came  to  its  zenith.  Its  color  of  dun  and 
red  had  flashed  all  througli  the  conflict.  It  was  knotty.  Imag- 
ine a  piece  of  cordword  with  a  limber  joint  in  it.  Tliat  was  the 
llollenbefk  dexter  leg  at  2:  01  o'clock. 

Tlie  l)all  was  snapped  back  to  this  man  of  basic  development. 
For  a  moment  he  shifted  Jiis  entire  weight,  dropped  tlie  ball, 
and  as  it  touched  the  ground,  swung  tlie  toe  of  his  destiny  into 
it  with  a  dull  but  mighty  wliack. 

The  ball  started  for  a  definite  place  in  the  solar  system  at  an 
angle  of  forty  degrees.  It  described  a  line  of  beauty  mure 
attractive  than  all  the  parabolas  of  geometry  which  the  young 


DISCRIMIJSTATIOX    IX   THE    CHOICE   OF   WORDS        353 

men  of  the  college  love  so  well.  The  crowds  hushed  their  yells 
and  caught  their  breaths.  The  ball  rose  straight  between  the 
goal  posts  and  high  above  them. 

In  days  to  come,  the  men  of  the  college  will  delight  to  tell  the 
tale  of  a  blue  and  stocky  leg,  a  tough,  padded,  muddy  leg  that 
kicked  its  way  to  fame  through  the  terrible  opposing  line  and 
bruised  their  hopes  and  persons. 

Until  yesterday,  that  leg  was  the  undisputed  property  of  a 
young  man  of  the  college  named  HoUenbeck,  cliiefly  known  as 
'varsity  full-back.  In  fact  it  was  his  dexter  member.  He  used 
it  to  stand  on,  and  for  otlier  menial  purposes.  But  having  won 
the  great  game  of  "96  between  the  two  great  iiniversities,  it  is 
claimed  by  hundreds  of  jubilant  students  as  a  relic  of  history. 
There  is  little  doubt  that,  could  the  modest  and  inoffensive  Hol- 
lenbeck  be  induced  to  part  with  the  stocky  leg,  it  would  be 
framed,  set  on  a  pedestal,  or  preserved  in  alcohol  by  its  frenzied 
worshipers. 

9.  He  walked  three  miles  through  the  slushy  snow,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  his  uetlier  garments. 

10.  She  was  a  kitchen  mechanic  of  the  Hibernian  persuasion, 
not  beautiful  to  look  at,  but  a  wonder  in  the  culinary  depart- 
ment. 

11.  Miss  Jane  Armstrong  was  last  night  united  in  the  bonds 
of  matrimony  with  John  Wilbur,  of  this  place.  The  rites  were 
solemnized  by  the  Reverend  John  Watson.  We  wish  tliem 
liappiness  on  the  voyage  on  which  they  have  embarked. 

12.  James  C.  Gavin,  tonsorial  artist. 

13.  The  number  of  my  ideas  is  considerably  diminished  during 
my  next  attempt  to  conceal  from  the  large  and  enthusiastic 
audience  of  my  classmates  how  thin  is  my  mental  furnishing, 
and  the  vacuum  thus  caused  is  filled  by  a  slight  mal  de  tete, 
which,  together  with  an  aching  void  in  the  stomach,  is  the  occa- 
sion for  a  somewhat  sudden  departure  for  the  region  of  civilized 
cooks. 

14.  "My  employer,  ma'am, —  Mr.  Heep  —  once  did  me  the 
favour  to  observe  to  me  that  if  I  were  not  in  the  receipt  of  the 
stipendiary  emoluments  appertaining  to  my  engagement  with 
him,  I  should  probably  be  a  mountebank  about  the  c'ountry, 
swallowing  a  sword-blade  and  eating  the  devouring  element- 
For  anything  that  I  can  perceive  to  the  contrary,  it  is  still  prob- 
able that  my  children  may  be  reduced  to  seek  a  livelihood  by  per- 
sonal contortion,   while  Mrs.  Micawber  abets  their   unnatural 


254  COMPOSITIOJS*    AND    RHETORIC 

feats  by  playing  the  barrel-organ. "     Dickens:    David  Copper- 
field. 

D.  Define  triteness.  Why  does  triteness  destroy  force? 
Point  out  the  hackneyed  phrases  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  The  night  was  a  perfect  one.  All  nature  seemed  in  tune. 
The  stars  twinkled  like  diamonds,  the  air  was  warm  and  balmy, 
and  the  lake  was  so  calm  and  clear  and  bright  that  it  looked  like 
an  immense  mirror.  Behind  the  trees,  that  stood  like  grim 
sentinels  on  the  sliore,  the  moon  rose  slowly,  grandly,  majestic- 
ally, like  a  great  ball  of  fire. 

2.  All  nature  was  in  repose  as  we  set  sail  on  our  gallant  ship. 

3.  Only  with  great  persuasion  did  she  prevent  him  from 
demanding  the  hand  of  his  lady  fair  from  her  stern  father. 

4.  The  little  lioat  danced  merrily  over  the  sparkling  waves  on 
its  way  to  the  deep,  blue  sea. 

5.  A  few  heartrending  cries  made  night  hideous,  and  then 
thirty  souls  had  gone  down  into  the  briny  deep. 

6.  Old  Sol's  broad,  smiling  face  rose  over  the  distant  liilltops 
and  began  to  diffuse  the  genial  warmth  of  his  smile. 

7.  The  blushing  bride,  leaning  on  the  arm  of  her  fond  parent, 
passed  up  the  aisle,  the  admired  of  all  admirers. 

8.  If  he  can  only  work  from  morn  till  dewy  eve,  he  thinks  he 
is  in  his  native  element. 

9.  He  never  supposed,  wlien  a  boy  on  the  few  paternal  acres, 
that  he  should  attain  such  dizzy  heights  of  fame. 

E.  Define  connotation.  Find  examples  of  words 
Avhich,  because  of  their  connotation,  may  be  used  only  in 
certain  connections. 

F.  Write  a  paragraph  stating  your  views  as  to  the  use 
of  general  and  of  specific  words. 

G.  Contrast  the  vocabularies  of  the  two  following 
extracts.  Which  is  the  more  specific?  The  more  gen- 
eral?    The  more  effective? 

1.  Oae  day  during  the  spring  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  wit- 
ness a  dozen  operations  in  one  of  the  finest  operating  rooms  in 
the  country.  I  liad  never  seen  an  operating  room  before,  so  tlie 
numerous  surgeons'  imjjlements,  and  all  tlie  parapliornalia  tliat 
are  nec-essary  in  a  modern  operation,  were  of  great  interest  to 


DISCRIMINATION    IN   THE    CHOICE    OF   WORDS        '^55 

me.     And  they  are  very  many.     Moreover,  many  nurses  and,  it 
seemed  to  me,  many  doctors,  are  necessary  for  every  operation. 

2.  A  great  flood  of  light  came  through  broad  windows  into  a 
white,  high-walled  room  and  shone  upon  white-robed  figures 
standing  over  a  table.  On  the  table  lay  a  man  whom  one  might 
think  dead  if  the  grey  blankets  across  his  chest  had  not  risen 
and  fallen  with  his  heavy  breathing.  A  sickening  odor  of  ether 
filled  the  room.  Knives,  needles  and  all  sorts  of  gruesome  im- 
plements lay  upon  a  stand  near  by,  and  just  beyond,  on  another 
stand,  were  bottles,  bandages,  and  a  big  roll  of  cotton.  Nurses 
in  plain  gingham  dresses,  white  aprons,  and  jauntily-puckered 
cotton  caps  stood  around  the  room.  But  your  eyes  soon  left  these 
details,  and  came  back,  almost  unwillingly,  to  tlie  two  doctors 
leaning  over  the  reclining  man. 

H.  Why  is  a  figurative  style  forcible?  What  are 
the  marks  of  a  good  figure?  Of  a  had  one?  Whicli 
of  the  following  figures  are  good  and  which  are  bad? 
Why? 

1.  His  tears  fell  like  rain  on  the  girl's  tresses,  fine  as  spun 
gold. 

3.  Historical  France  has  three  great  searchlights  that  have 
swept  the  ocean  of  time  and  sent  their  little  beams  through  all 
the  centuries — Louis  XIV.,  Napoleon,  and  Henry  of  Navarre. 

3.  Tlie  doughty  half-back  plunges  down  the  field,  fierce  as  a 
lion,  tossing  his  foes  aside. 

4.  When  Mr.  Cottle,  the  publisher,  shortly  after  sold  his  copy- 
rights to  Mr.  Longman,  that  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads  was  reckoned 
at  zero,  and  it  was  at  last  given  up  to  the  authors.  A  few  per- 
sons were  not  wanting,  however,  who  discovered  the  dawn- 
streaks  of  a  new  day  in  that  light  which  the  critical  fire-brigade 
thought  to  extinguish  with  a  few  contemptuous  spurts  of  cold 
water.  — Lowell  :  Wor'dswor^th. 

5.  Wordsworth  went  quietly  over  to  Germany  to  write  more 
Lyrical  Ballads,  and  to  begin  a  poem  on  the  growth  of  his  own 
mind,  at  a  time  when  there  were  only  two  men  in  the  world 
(himself  and  Coleridge)  who  were  aware  that  he  had  one,  or  at 
least  one  anywise  differing  from  those  mechanically  uniform 
ones  which  are  stuck  drearily,  side  by  side,  in  the  great  pin 
paper  of  society. — Ibid. 

6.  His  advance  was  punctuated  by  applause. 


25G  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIG 

7.  Artistic  Description  dips  her  pen  in  Beauty's  ink-well  and 
lays  on  the  sti'okes  with  a  free,  clear  hand. 

8.  Climax  is  the  bell  that  strikes  at  the  end  of  your  story. 

9 .  The  hand  of  the  United  States,  thrown  into  the  balance, 
might  turn  the  tide. 

10.  We  can  see  Amyas  burning  to  overflowing  with  the  pur- 
pose and  the  unrelenting  aim. 

11.  Another  ban-ier  to  the  assimilation  of  the  Chinese  hinges 
on  the  marriage  question. 

12.  One  of  our  boys,  experienced  in  heart-breaking,  agreed  to 
try  his  skill  on  a  certain  sentimental  female  in  the  other  society, 
and  as  soon  as  he  had  her  under  his  thumb,  to  probe  her  for  the 
secrets  of  her  paper.     She  swallowed  bait,  hook,  and  all. 

13.  But  tlie  walls  were  made  of  screens  of  marble  tracery — 
beautiful,  milk-white  fretwork,  set  with  agates  and  carnelians 
and  jasper  and  lapis  lazuli,  and  as  the  moon  came  up  behind 
the  hill  it  shone  through  the  openwork,  casting  shadows  on  the 
ground  like  black-velvet  embroidery. — KiPLiNO:  The  Jiuujle 
Book. 

14.  The  seeds  of  the  Gospel  have  been  watered  with  the  blood 
of  the  martyrs. 

15.  Till  the  dawn,  hour  after  hour,  as  the  moonlight  paled  on 
the  high  jieaks,  and  that  which  had  been  belted  blackness  on  the 
sides  of  the  far  hills  showed  as  tender  green  forest,  the  lama 
stared  fixedly  at  the  wall. — Kipling:  Kim. 

16.  In  the  midst  of  it  all  gleams  the  Welsh  Harp  Lake,  like  a 
piece  of  sky  that  has  become  unstuck  and  tumbled  into  the 
landscajje  with  its  shiny  side  up. — Du  Maurier:  Peter  Ibbetson. 

17.  [The  brown  bear]  hugged  as  many  [monkeys]  as  he  could 
hold,  and  then  began  to  hit  with  a  regular  bat-bat-hat,  like  the 
flipping  strokes  of  a  paddle  wheel. — Kiplixq:  The  Jungle  Book. 

18.  The  moon  was  sinking  behind  the  hills,  and  the  lines  of 
trembling  monkeys  huddled  together  on  the  walls  and  battle- 
ments looked  like  ragged,  shaky  fringes  of  things. — Ibid. 

19.  It  is  not  a  great  Xerxes-army  of  words,  but  a  compact 
Greek  ten  thousand,  that  march  safely  down  to  posterity. — 
Lowell  :  WordswortJi. 

30.  That  [tlie  ability  to  write]  was  a  proficiency  that  tempted 
me :  and  I  practiced  to  acquire  it  as  men  learn  to  whittle,  in  a 
wager  with  myself. — Stevexson:  A  College  Magazine. 

21.  Almost  from  the  first  moment  of  my  march,  a  faint,  lar^e 
noise,  like  a  distant  surf,  had  filled  my  ears.  .   .  .  As  I  continued 


DISCRIMIXATIOX   IN"   THE    CHOICE    OF   WORDS        ^oT 

to  advance,  tlie  noise  increased  and  became  like  the  hissing  of  an 
enormous  tea-m'n. — Stevenson:  Travels  with  a  Donkey. 

22.  One  thing  only  De  Launay  could  have  done — what  he  said 
he  would  do.  Fancy  him  sitting,  from  the  fii'sfc,  with  lighted 
taper,  within  arm's-length  of  the  powder  magazine ;  motionless, 
like  an  old  Roman  Senator,  or  bronze  lamp-]\older. — Carlyle: 
Tlie  Storming  of  the  Bastile. 

23.  Pathetic  little  tumble-down  old  houses,  all  out  of  drawing 
and  perspective,  nestled  like  old  spider's  webs  between  the  but- 
tresses of  the  great  cathedral. — Du  Maurier:  Trilby. 

24.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  drank  too  much  and  ate  too  much, 
lie  resembled  a  sponge:  when  empty,  too  rough  a  customer; 
when  full,  too  juicy. — Hewlett:  Richard  Yea  and  Nay. 

25.  The  fog  was  driven  apart  for  a  moment,  and  the  sun 
shone,  a  blood-red  wafer,  on  the  water. — Kiplino:  Plain  Tales 
from  the  Hills. 

26.  The  feeling  of  unhappiness  he  had  never  known  before 
covered  him  as  water  covers  a  log. — Kipling:  The  Second 
Jungle  Book. 

I.  Comment  fully  on  the  appropriateness  or  tlic  inap- 
propriateness  of  the  diction  in  these  quotations: 

1.  Never  was  queen  given  a  prouder  ovation  than  Emma 
Nevada,  the  peerless,  last  night.  Words  are  mere  idle  things 
when  the  attempt  is  made  to  describe  the  scene,  the  singer,  and 
tlie  songs. 

No  elaborate  stage  settings  had  been  attempted,  though  tlie 
l)oards  where  oft  the  sock  and  buskin  have  held  sway  were  taste- 
fully decorated  with  the  national  colors. 

But,  ah !  what  a  difference  a  moment  later.  The  center  por- 
tieres part,  a  vision  of  sweet,  beauteous  womanhood  appears, 
lingering  a  brief  moment  as  she  holds  the  rich  folds  apart,  a 
dark,  warm  frame  to  the  picture — the  lark  with  a  voice  of 
melody  divine. 

Such  a  roar  of  applause  sweeps  upward  from  the  multitude 
that  the  building  fairly  trembles.  Will  it  never  cease'.'  Ah, 
that  comes  .straight  from  the  heart  of  the  free  spoken  people  of 
the  mountains.  It  rolls  and  sweeps,  surges  and  beats,  and  amid 
it  all,  the  famous  little  woman,  greater  to-night  to  those  enrap- 
tured hundreds  than  the  proudest  queen  who  ever  sat  on  a 
throne,  comes  down  the  center  of  the  stage,  a  vision  of  dainty, 
sweet  good-nature. 


258  COMPOSITION   AXD   RHETORIC 

"Isn't  she  sweet!"  "Oh,  the  dear  thing,"  and  kindred  excla- 
mations burst  forth  spontaneously. 

2.  The  violet  fad,  which  has  found  expression  in  so  many  cap- 
tivating shapes,  now  appeals  to  the  fastidious  woman  in  the  form 
of  a  wood  violet  tooth  wash.  After  each  meal  thirty  drops  or 
more  of  this  lotion  are  added  to  a  small  glass  of  water,  when  it  is 
ready  for  a  revivifying  mouth  rinse. 

How  every  crevice  and  cranny  about  the  pinky  gums  revel  in 
this  bit  of  aestheticism !  Gay  little  ripples  of  laughter  are 
freighted  with  a  violet-laden  sweetness  that  is  truly  the  very 
acme  of  feminine  refinement.  A  gossipy  confidence  breathes  in 
every  word  uttered,  a  tribute  to  this  jjleasant  mode  of  adding 
one  more  charm  to  woman's  make-up. 

3.  It  is  due  to  Neighbor  Diaz  [President  Diaz  of  Mexico]  to  say 
that  he  is  not  taking  advantage  of  this  unpleasantness  [the 
Spanish-American  War]  to  throw  any  garbage  over  the  line 
fence. 

4.  It  looks  as  if  Mr.  Williamson  had  succeeded  in  moving  the 
senator's  keep-oil-the-grass  sign  several  yards  further  back. 

5.  If  England  and  Uncle  Sam  ever  do  join  hands  and  circle  to 
the  left,  they  will  lead  the  rest  of  the  world  a  lively  dance. 

6.  There  seems  to  be  a  notion  abroad  that  the  United  States 
cannot  hold  the  Monroe  doctrine  and  a  vigorous  foreign  policy 
at  the  same  time.  The  American  eagle,  let  it  be  understood, 
has  two  claws,  not  to  mention  a  serviceable  beak. 

7.  A  very  good  touch  in  the  line  of  pathos  is  the  boy's  grief 
over  the  dead  bird. 

8.  Baldassare  was  old,  red-eyed,  stiff  in  the  back.  Possibly  he 
was  rheumatic,  certainly  he  was  grump}^  He  had  a  long  slit 
mouth  which  played  him  a  cruel  trick ;  for  by  natm-e  it  smiled 
when  by  nature  he  was  most  melancholy.  Smile  it  would  and 
did,  however  cut-throat  he  felt :  if  you  wanted  to  see  him  grin 
from  ear  to  ear  you  would  wait  till  he  had  had  an  ill  day's  market. 
Then,  while  sighs,  curses,  invocations  of  the  saints,  or  open  hints 
to  the  devil,  came  roaring  from  him,  that  hilarious  mouth  of  his 
invited  you  to  share  delights.  You  had  needs  laugh  with  him, 
and  he,  cursing  high  and  low,  beamed  all  over  Iiis  face.  "To  make 
Baldassare  laugh"  became  a  stock  periphrasis  for  the  supreme 
degree  of  tragedj'  among  his  neighbours.  About  this  traitor 
mouth  of  his  he  had  a  dew  of  scrubby  beard,  silvered  black ;  he 
had  bushy  eyebrows,  hands  and  arms  covered  with  a  black  pelt: 
he  was  a  very  hairy  man. — Hewlett:  Little  Novels  of  Italy. 


DISCRIMINATION    IN   THE    CHOICE   OF   WORDS        259 

9.  It  made  all  tlie  diflference,  in  asserting  any  principle  of 
war,  whether  one  assumed  that  a  discharge  of  artillery  would 
merely  knead  down  a  certain  quantity  of  once  living  clay  into  a 
level  line,  as  in  a  brickfield;  or  whether,  out  of  every  separately 
Christian-nanaed  portion  of  the  ruinous  heap,  there  went  out, 
into  the  smoke  and  dead-fallen  air  of  battle,  some  astonished 
condition  of  soul,  unwillingly  released. — Ruskin:  The  Croicn  of 
Wild  Olive. 

10.  All  the  roads  of  our  neighbourhood  were  cheerful  and 
friendly,  having  each  of  them  pleasant  qualities  of  their  own; 
but  this  one  seemed  different  from  the  others  in  its  masterful 
suggestion  of  a  serious  purpose,  speeding  you  along  with  a 
strange  uplifting  of  the  heart.  The  others  tempted  chiefly  with 
their  treasures  of  hedge  and  ditch ;  the  rapt  surprise  of  the  first 
lords-and-ladies,  the  rustle  of  a  field  mouse,  splash  of  a  frog; 
while  cool  noses  of  brother-beasts  were  pushed  at  you  through 
gate  or  gap.  A  loiterer  you  had  need  to  be,  did  yovi  choose  one 
of  them, — .so  many  were  the  tiny  hands  thrust  out  to  detain  you, 
from  this  side  and  that.  But  this  other  was  of  a  sterner  sort, 
and  even  in  its  shedding  off  of  bank  and  hedgerow  as  it  marched 
straight  and  full  for  the  ojien  downs,  it  seemed  to  declare  its 
contempt  for  adventitious  trappings  to  catcli  the  shallow-pated. 
When  the  sense  of  injustice  or  disappointment  was  heavy  on  me, 
and  things  Avere  very  black  within,  as  on  this  particular  day, 
the  road  of  character  was  my  choice  for  that  solitarj'  ramble, 
when  I  turned  my  back  for  an  afternoon  on  a  world  that  had 
unaccountably  declared  itself  against  me. — Kenneth  Grahame: 
TJie  Golden  Age. 

11.  The  dream  commenced  with  a  music  which  now  I  often 
heard  in  dreams — a  music  of  preparation  and  of  awakening  sus- 
pense :  a  music  like  the  opening  of  the  Coi'onation  Anthem,  and 
which,  like  tliat,  gave  the  feeling  Of  a  vast  march — of  infinite 
cavalcades  .filing  off — and  the  tread  of  innumerable  armies. 
The  morning  was  come  of  a  mighty  day — a  day  of  .crisis  and  of 
fmal  hope  for  human  natui'e,  then  suffering  some  mysterious 
eclipse,  and  labouring  in  some  dread  extremity.  Somewhere,  I 
knew  not  wliere — somehow,  I  knew  not  how — by  some  beings,  I 
knew  not  whom — a  battle,  a  strife,  an  agony,  was  conducting — 
was  evolving  like  a  great  drama,  or  piece  of  music;  with  which 
my  sympathy  was  the  more  insupportable  from  my  confusion  as 
to  its  place,  its  cause,  its  nature,  and  its  possible  issue.  I,  as  is 
usual  in  dreams  (where,  of  necessity,  we  make  ourselves  central 


260  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC 

to  every  movement),  had  the  power,  and  yet  had  not  the  power, 
to  decide  it.  I  had  the  power,  if  I  covild  raise  myself,  to  will  it, 
and  yet  again  had  not  the  power,  for  the  weight  of  twenty 
Atlantics  was  upon  me,  or  the  oppression  of  inexpiable  guilt. 
"Deeper  than  ever  plummet  sounded,"  I  lay  inactive.  Then, 
like  a  chorus,  the  passion  deepened.  Some  greater  interest  was 
at  stake;  some  mightier  cause  than  ever  yet  the  sword  had 
pleaded,  or  trumpet  had  proclaimed.  Then  came  sudden  alarms: 
hurryings  to  and  fro:  trepidations  of  innumerable  fugitives,  I 
knew  not  whether  from  the  good  cause  or  the  bad :  darkness  and 
lights:  tempest  and  human  faces:  and  at  last,  with  the  sense 
that  all  was  lost,  female  forms,  and  the  features  that  were  worth 
all  t"he  woild  to  me,  and  but  a  moment  allowed, — and  clasped 
hands,  and  heart-breaking  partings,  and  then — everlasting  fare- 
wells! and  witli  a  sigh,  such  as  the  caves  of  hell  sighed  when  the 
incestuous  mother  vittered  the  abhorred  name  of  death,  the 
sound  was  reverberated — everlasting  farewells!  and  again  and 
yet  again  reverberated — everlasting  farewell.s! 

And  I  awoke  in  struggles,  and  cried  aloud — "I  will  sleep  nu 
more!" — De  Quincf.y  :  Tlte  I'aiit.s  of  02>inm. 


PAET  IV 

EHETOEICAL  PRIXCIPLES 


CHAPTEE   XVI 

A  SURVEY  OF  THE  CHIEF  RHETORICAL  PRINCIPLES 

111.  The  Nature  of  Rhetorical  Principles. — At  the  out- 
set of  our  work  in  composition,  we  leiirned  that  in  writing 
there  are  two  matters  to  be  considered — correctness  and 
effectiveness.  Correctness,  we  learned,  prescribes  that 
we  use  authorized  English  words,  and  that  we  use  them 
according  to  the  accepted  hnvs  of  the  language,  called 
grammar.  Effectiveness  prescribes  tluit  we  select  words 
which  Avill  represent  our  ideas  accurately  and  attractively. 
Part  II  of  this  book  dealt  wholly  with  the  first  matter — 
correctness.  Part  III  dealt  Avith  effectiveness  in  the 
choice  of  words.  In"  Part  IV  vfe  shall  consider  what 
general  laws  of  structure  will  help  to  make  sentences, 
paragraphs,  and  whole  compositions  clear  and  effective. 

A  good  writer,  we  shall  find,  follows,  consciously  or 
unconsciously,  a  few  principles  in  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  his  ideas, — and  hence  in  the  selection  ai;d 
arrangement  of  his  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 
Ihese  rhetorical  principles  are  but  common-sense  rules, 
which  apply  to  the  other  arts  as  Avell  as  to  writing,  and 
which,  indeed,  govern  our  conduct  in  practical  life. 
They  are  universal  principles  of  action.  A  sensible  man, 
for  example,  does  not  fritter  away  his  time  and  his 
strength  in  a  large  number  of  enterprises  all  going  on  at 

261 


262  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

once;  he  concentrates  his  efforts  upon  one  object  at  a 
time.  In  writing,  this  princii^le  of  concentration  is 
called  unity.  Similar  parallels  between  the  other  funda- 
mental principles  of  composition  and  the  principles  that 
govern  our  conduct  in  life  may  easily  ])e  found.  Of  the 
many  principles  of  composition  which  might  be  treated, 
we  shall  discuss  here  only  the  six  most  important  ones. 

112.  Selection. — The  first  step  in  composition  (see 
chapter  II)  is  the  gathering  of  material;  the  second  step 
is  the  selection  from  the  nuiss  of  thoughts,  facts,  and 
impressions  thus  brought  together  of  those  parts  which  will 
best  serve  our  purpose.  We  can  see  more  in  one  glance 
than  we  can  describe  completely  in  a  dozen  pages ;  we 
must  make  notes  and  accumulate  details  before  we  are 
ready  to  write  even  a  simple  theme.  ]\Iean while,  a  proc- 
ess of  selection  goes  on  in  our  minds  unobserved,  causing 
us  to  remember  some  things  and  to  forget  others.  But 
this  unconscious  winnowing  is  not  enough.  Before  we 
attempt  any  serious  writing,  we  must  examine  consciously 
the  material  we  have  at  our  command  to  see  what  is 
needed  for  our  purpose.  In  this  choice  of  material  we  are 
influenced  by  three  considerations:  the  details  selected 
must  be  important,  they  must  be  harmonious,  and  they 
must  be  suggestive.  In  other  words,  the  writer  should 
take  from  his  material  what  it  is  necessary  for  the  reader 
to  know,  what  fits  together  properly,  and  Avhat  will  inter- 
est his  reader.  This  process  is  called  the  principle  of 
selection. 

113.  Unity. — Selection  and  unity,  the  second  of  the 
l)rinciples  we  shall  discuss,  are  very  closely  related. 
Any  piece  of  writing  should  give  the  reader  an  impres- 
sion OT  being  a  whole.  If  we  put  too  many  thoughts 
into  a  sentence,  a  paragraph,  or  a  whole  composition, 
that  part  of  our  writing  will  be  confused  or  vague. 
On   the    other    hand,    if    we    do    not    include    all    the 


RHETORICAL    PRINCIPLES  263 

thought  that  belongs  to  that  unit  of  composition,  we  fail 
equally  in  making  it  effective.  Digressions  and  omis- 
sions are  both  to  be  avoided.  The  difficult  thing  is  to 
know  Just  how  much  or  how  little  is  needed  to  satisfy  this 
sense  of  unity  in  any  given  sentence,  paragraph,  or  whole 
composition. 

The  principle  of  unity  further  directs  that  every  com- 
position shall  be  treated  from  one  "point  of  view." 
The  phrase  "point  of  view"  may  best  be  explained  by  an 
illustration.  If,  in  telling  the  story  of  a  foot  race,  the 
writer  describes  the  race  as  he  saw  it  from  the  grand- 
stand, he  will  have  one  "point  of  view" ;  if  he  describes  it 
as  one  of  the  athletes  saw  it  from  the  track,  he  will  have 
another;  if  he  describes  it  in  part  from  the  grand-stand 
and  in  part  from  the  field,  he  will  have  two  opposed  points 
of  view.  Unity  requires  that  at  any  given  moment  the 
writer  shall  have  one  point  of  view  clearly  in  mind; 
and  that  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  point 
of  view  he  shall  make  the  transition  quite  plain.  The 
fewer  changes  in  the  point  of  view  the  better  it  is  for  the 
unity  of  the  composition. 

114.  Coherence. — Coherence  means  literally  "sticking 
together."  Sequence,  another  name  for  this  principle, 
conveys  a  little  more  clearly  than  coherence  the  idea  of 
order.  All  the  parts  of  a  composition  should  follow  one 
after  another  in  a  logical  method.  "Order,"  we  are  told, 
"is  Heaven's  first  law."  But  it  is  not  enough  merely 
to  arrange  ideas  logically :  they  must  often  be  cemented, 
as  it  were,  by  little  words  of  relationship.  Clearness  in 
composition  depends  very  largely  upon  the  observance  of 
the  principle  of  coherence.  The  ideas  must  be  presented 
in  such  an  order  and  with  such  verbal  connectives  that 
the  reader  is  prepared  to  understand  each  sentence  and 
each  paragraph  and  each  section  of  the  whole  composition, 
when  he  comes  to  it. 


2'U  COMPOSITION"   AND    RHETORIC 

115.  Emphasis.— The  principle  of  emphasis  (or  mass) 
concenis  the  arrangement  of  ideas:  whatever  is  important 
should  be  given  an  important  place ;  whatever  is  subordinate 
should  be  given  a  subordinate  place.  Usually,  the  impor- 
tant places  in  a  sentence,  a  paragraph,  or  a  Avhole  com- 
position, are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  The  principle 
of  emphasis  is  often  called  by  rhetoricians  proportion  and 
climax.  Both  these  terms  express  certain  distinct  kinds 
of  emphasis,  and  will  be  discussed  separately. 

116.  Proportion. — Every  jxirt  of  a  v/hole  composition 
should  be  written  with  reference  to  its  relative  impor- 
tance. An  unini])ortant  part  should  not  be  developed  at 
the  expense  of  another  more  necessary  part.  Moreover, 
there  should  be  a  definite  scale  of  treatment,  and  this 
scale  of  treatment,  once  decided  upon,  should  be  main- 
tained throughout  the  whole  composition.  This  prin- 
ciple of  measure  and  balance,  while  less  important  than 
unity  and  coherence,  will  always  be  found  in  writing  dis- 
tinguished for  finish  and  perfection. 

117.  Climax.-— The  v/ord  climax  (from  the  Greek  word 
meaning  a  scale  or  ladder)  originally  had  but  one  mean- 
ing in  English— and  in  that  sense  we  use  it  here— a 
rise  or  ascent.  In  arranging  a  series  of  coordinate 
words,  phrases,  clauses,  sentences,  or  paragraphs  the  less 
important  ones  should  be  followed  by  the  more  important. 
The  interest  of  the  reader  should  grow  as  the  composition 
progresses,  and  the  highest  point  of  interest  should  bo 
the  close.  The  good  sense  of  this  law  is  self-evident.  Xo 
one  wishes  to  read  a  story  that  opens  with  much  excite- 
ment, Init  "runs  down''  at  the  close.  In  telling  an  anec- 
dote, he  who  puts  his  point  first  fails  to  win  attention. 
Expectation  on  the  part  of  the  reader  is  the  attitude 
desired  by  the  writer. 

118.  Necessity  of  Observing  These  Principles— Modifi- 
cations of  thc.-d  ])rinc!|)les,  and  even  new  principles,  may 


EHETORICAL    PRINCIPLES  265 

be  discovered,  but  the  principles  of  selection,  unity,  cohe- 
rence, and  emphasis  are  essential  to  every  piece  of  wiit- 
ing,  no  matter  what  is  its  nature.  The  writer  who  wishes 
to  make  the  most  of  his  ideas  should  see  that  he  has  used 
the  best  of  his  material,  that  he  has  arranged  his 
thoughts  logically  and  emphatically,  that  he  has  left  with 
his  reader  a  single  definite  impression,  that  he  has  paid 
due  attention  to  every  part  of  his  subject,  and  that  he 
has  proceeded  from  less  to  more  interesting  matter. 

In  this  chapter,  rhetorical  principles  have  been 
described  in  general,  in  their  application  not  only  to  words, 
sentences,  and  paragraphs,  but  also  to  thought  or  material. 
In  the  succeeding  chapters,  they  will  be  treated  specific- 
ally in  their  action  upon  the  form  of  sentences,  para- 
graphs, and  whole  compositions. 

Exercise  XVI 

A.  Define  and  illustrate  the  phrase  "a  rhetorical  prin- 
ciple." What  parallels  to  these  rhetorical  principles  can 
you  find  in  other  fields,  such  as  sculpture,  painting,  and 
architecture?  What  is  the  use  of  a  principle  in  the  prac- 
tice of  composition? 

B.  What  specific  principles  are  defined  in  this  chapter? 
Describe  the  application  of  each.  Do  tliey  apply  to  any 
one  kind  of  writing  only? 

C.  Illustrate  unity  by  an  examination  of  one  of  Haw- 
thorne's short  stories,  one  of  Macaulay's  essays,  or  an  act 
of  The  Merchant  of  Venice.  What  is  the  "point  of  view'' 
in  each  case?  Is  there  any  noticeable  point  of  view  in 
the  following  themes?     What  is  it  in  each  one? 

1.  I  sit  higb  up  in  the  old  tower.  The  houses  below  me  look 
like  little  girls'  play-houses,  and  the  men  and  women  hunying 
here  and  there  seem  like  the  little  men  and  women  that  inhabit 
these  mansions  of  the  juvenile  mind. 

I  grow  dizzy  looking  down  so  far  below  me,  and  my  eyes 


266  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

wander  far  off  over  the  level  country  dotted  with  farm-houses 
and  peaceful  homes  with  their  surrounding  barns  and  orchards. 
A  little  way  from  town,  toward  the  west,  is  the  home  of  an  Eng- 
lish family.  The  large,  square  house,  with  its  hospitable  look, 
the  winding  road,  lined  with  flower  beds  full  of  mignonette, 
forget-me-nots,  marigolds,  and  other  old-fashioned  flowers,  tlie 
tiny  pond  with  its  little  boat-house  on  the  bank,  and  the  two 
swans  sailing  majestically  on  the  water,  the  fantastically  shaped 
evergreen  trees  and  big  rose  bushes  covered  with  pink,  white, 
crimson,  and  yellow  blossoms,  all  lend  an  air  of  beauty  and 
well-being  to  the  jilace  as  they  lie  in  the  morning  sunshine. 

2.  Here  she  comes,  trotting  up  the  walk  toward  the  porch  of 
the  house  next  door,  her  scarlet  cloak  flying  and  her  golden  curls 
bobbing  up  and  down  on  either  side  of  her  glowing  cheeks,  as 
her  fat  little  legs  almost  trip  one  another  up  in  their  hurrj'  to 
reach  shelter  from  observation.  Up  the  porch  she  runs,  hood 
askew  and  tiny  mitten  grasping  firmly  a  big,  white  envelope. 
After  ringing  the  bell  she  stands  there,  jumping  up  and  down 
with  excitement,  and  as  she  catches  sight  of  me  she  shakes  her 
head  vigorously  and  throws  what  I  interj^ret  as  an  ai:)peal  for 
silence  into  her  laughing  eyes.  Someone  opens  the  inner  door, 
and  in  a  flash  she  is  down  the  steps  and  around  the  corner  at  a 
gait  which  seems  to  me  an  inimitable  mixture  of  hop  and  slide. 
Everything  is  well,  I  think  to  myself;  but  just  as  I  turn  awaj'  I 
catch  sight  of  a  small  brown  head,  with  close  cx'opped  hair,  in  a 
window  opposite  me,  a  head  which  has  apparently  been  watch- 
ing proceedings  as  eagerly  as  I.  St.  Valentine's  secrets  will 
never  be  inviolate  while  lie  entrusts  them  to  the  light  of  day. 

D.  Explain  in  detail  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
selection.  Outline  a  story  about  some  commonplace  inci- 
dent, and  indicate  the  parts  that  you  would  omit  in 
writing. 

E.  AVhat  is  coherence?  In  describing  a  room,  how 
would  you  observe  the  principle  of  coherence?  In  telling 
the  story  of  the  caskets  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice?  In 
explaining  the  making  of  chlorine-gas  or  some  other 
chemical  compound? 

F.  Show  how  Macaulay  preserves  proportion  in  that 
one  of  his  essays  with  wliich  you  are  most  familiar.     Is 


RHETOKICAL    PRINCIPLES  267 

there  any  chapter  in  the  first  fifteen  chapters  of  Woodstock 
that  hicks  proportion? 

G.  Write  on  the  following  topics  themes  of  one  to  two 
pages : 

1.  A  "sky-scraper"  (make  plain  the  point  of  view). 

2.  A  familiar  battle  (observe  coherence). 

3.  My  best  friend  (selection). 

4.  An  abandoned  farm  (coherence). 

5.  The  principle  of  gravity  (coherence). 

6.  Bird  life  near  your  home  (selection)a 

7.  An  anecdote  (climax). 


CHAPTER   XVII 


UNITY   IN  SENTENCES 

119.  Unity  Defined. — All  of  the  rhetorical  principles 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  cliapter  apply  to  the  para- 
graph and  the  whole  composition,  but  only  three — unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis — are  of  much  importance  in 
dealing  with  sentences.  These  three  we  shall  take  up  in 
the  order  given  above. 

To  discover  the  meaning  and  the  importance  of  unity  in 
sentences,  let  us  look  at  some  careless  sentences: 


1.  Horace  Walker  and  his 
sister  Jane  were  called  to 
Watertown  last  Friday,  Mrs. 
Walker  having  had  a  sudden 
attack  of  heart-failure,  but 
she  is  better  now. 


2.  Wlien  the  wheezy  old  en- 
gine had  laboriously  puffed  its 
way  up  the  grade  and  then, 
with  grating  and  c-reaking, 
liad  been  in  turn  pushed  down 
the  grade  on  the  other  side  of 
the  hill,  through  a  dense  fog, 
into  the  vale  where  the  littie 
box-like  station  stood,  we  got 
together,  by  the  two  ill- 
painted,  unclean  cars  it  had' 
pulled  to  the  crest,  our  dress- 
suit  cases,  fishing-rods,  and 
baskets,  preparatory  to  taking 


1.  Horace  Walker  and  his 
sister  Jane  were  called  to 
Watertown  last  Friday,  by  the 
serious  illness  of  their  motlier. 
]\Irs.  Walker,  who  was  suffer- 
ing from  an  attack  of  heart- 
failure,  has  improved  some- 
what. 

2.  The  wlieez}^  old  engine 
laboriously  puffed  its  way  up 
the  grade  tlii-ough  a  thick, 
damp  fog,  and  then  vj'as 
pushed,  grating  and  creaking, 
down  the  other  side  of  the 
hill  to  the  little  box-like  station 
in  tlie  valley  below.  By  the 
side  of  the  two  ill-painted,  un- 
clean cars,  we  got  our  whole 
outfit  together  —  dress -suit 
cases,  fishing-rods,  and  baskets. 
Over  tlie  hills,  nine  miles 
away,  lay  the  lake,  where  we 


268 


UNITY   IN    SENTENCES  2 1)9 

a  nine-mile  ride  over  the  worst  were  to  fisli  for  a  few  days, 

i-oad    imaginable,   and   in  the  The  rest  of    the  journey   wo 

most  x'ickety  of  stage-coaches  must  make  in  the  most  rif'kety 

in  existence,  to  the  lake,  where  of  stage-coaches  and  over  the 

we  went  to  fish  for  a  day  or  worst  of  roads, 
two. 

These  litisty,  formless  sentences  were  obscure  because 
they  eitlier  had  no  main  idea  or  allowed  the  main  idea  to 
be  hidden  among  a  mas.-:!  of  minor  ones.  They  kicked 
unity.  A  unified  sentence  is  one  which  stand.s  oliviously 
for  a  single  complete  idea. 

120.  Unity  of  Thought. — A  sentence  which  has  no  cen- 
tral idea  is  said  to  lack  unity  of  thought.  Of  course,  if 
Ave  join  in  one  sentence  two  ideas  which  lack  all  connec- 
tion, the  sentence  loses  unity  of  thought;  e.  g. : 

1.  Booth  had  a  great  aversion  to  reliearsals,  but  he  was  a  most 
gentle  man  to  those  liolding  minor  positions. 

2.  "But  my  husband's  tongue  'ud  have  been  a  fortune  to  any- 
body, and  tliere  was  many  a  one  said  it  was  as  good  as  a  dose  of 
physic  to  hear  liim  talk ;  not  but  wliat  that  got  him  into  ti'ouble 
in  Lancashire,  but  he  always  said,  if  the  worst  came  to  the 
worst,  he  could  go  and  preach  to  the  blaclis." — George  Eliot  : 
Felix  Holt. 

Fortunately,  such  collections  of  odds  and  ends  of 
thought  are  not  common  in  serious  writing.  The  more 
usual  type  of  disunified  sentence  is  the  type  in  which  the 
writer  joins  in  one  sentence  two  or  more  statements 
which,  though  consecutive,  are  not  so  closely  consecutive 
as  to  be  parts  of  the  same  idea;  e.  g.  : 

Chaucer  began  to  write  at  an  early  age,  and  as  he  was  a  page 
for  some  court  lady  he  went  to  France  when  she  did,  and  we 
may  presume  tliat  his  stay  there  gave  him  an  ac(iuaintance  with 
French  literature  wliich  was  later  of  service  to  him. 

Be  careful  to  say  one  thing  at  a  time. 

A  similar,  though  less  elementary  error,  is  the  addition 
10  tlie  sentence  of  a  postscript,  as  in  the  following  extract: 


270 


COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 


Wlien  the  wire  is  in  the  groove  around  the  edge  of  the  pan, 
the  pan  is  given  to  a  boy  who  bends  together  the  tongue-shaped 
corners  spoken  of  above  and  puts  each  corner  into  a  niacliine, 
and  when  it  comes  out,  ice  find  the  corners  riveted. 

The    italicized    words    represent    ii    new     thought     and 
demand  a  new  sentence. 

Other  examples  of  sentences  whicli  include  too  much 
follow : 


1.  Tom  ran  but  once  and 
lost,  and  after  watching  the 
races  till  late,  we  left  the 
grounds. 

2.  The  allusion  in  the  last 
three  lines  is  to  the  story  that 
Orpheus  sought  his  wife  in 
Hades,  and  played  so  well  that 
"iron  tears  ran  down  the  cheeks 
of  Pluto,"'  and  he  granted 
Orpheus  permission  to  take  his 
wife  with  him  back  to  earth, 
on  condition  tliat  Orpheus 
must  not  look  back  at  her  till 
they  reached  the  surface,  but 
he  didn't  observe  the  condition, 
and  looked  back  at  his  wife 
when  he  himself  got  to  tlie 
earth's  surface,  and  so  he  lost 
liis  wife  a  second  time. 

3.  We  are  very  seldom  an- 
noyed with  thunderstorms; 
and  it  is  no  less  remarkable 
than  true,  that  those  wliich 
arise  in  the  south  have  hardly 
been  known  to  reach  this  vil- 
lage; for  before  they  get  over 
us,  they  take  a  direction  to  the 
east  or  to  the  west,  or  some- 
times divide  into  two,  and  go 
in  part  to  one  of  those  (luar- 


1.  Tom  ran  but  once,  and 
lost.  After  watching  the 
races  till  late,  we  left  the 
grounds. 

2.  The  allusion  in  the  last 
lines  is  to  the  story  of  Orpheus's 
search  for  his  wife  in  Hades. 
He  played  so  well  that  "iron 
tears  ran  down  the  cheeks  of 
Pluto,"  and  the  monarch  of 
Hades  granted  the  musician 
permission  to  take  his  wife 
back  to  earth,  on  condition 
that  he  should  not  look  back  at 
her  until  they  reached  the 
surface.  But  Orpheus  did  not 
observe  the  condition;  as  soon 
as  he  himself  got  to  the  sur- 
face, he  turned  to  glance  at 
Eurydice.  So  he  lost  his  wife 
a  second  time. 

3.  We  are  very  seldom  an- 
noyed with  thunder-storms; 
and  it  is  no  less  remarkable 
than  true,  that  those  which 
arise  in  the  south  have  hardly 
been  known  to  reach  this 
village;  for  before  they  get 
over  us,  tliej'  take  a  direction 
to  the  east  or  to  the  west,  or 
sometimes  divide  into  two  and 
gf)    in   j)art    to    one    of    these 


UXITY   IN'   SENTENCES  271 

ters,  and  in  part  to  the  other,  quarters,   and  in  part  to  the 

as  was  truly  tiie  case  in  the  other.      This    was    truly    the 

summer  of  1783,  when  thougli  case  in  the  summer  of  ITSo, 

the    country   round   was  con-  when,  as  appears  by  my  jour- 

tinually    harassed    with    tem-  nal  of  that  summer,  though  the 

pests,  and  often  from  the  soutli,  country  round  was  continually 

yet  we  escaped   them  all ;    as  harassed  with  tempests,  often 

appears  by  my  journal  of  that  from   the    south,    we    escaped 

summer. — W  H  i  T  E  :    Natural  them  all. 
History  of  Selhorne. 

121.   The  Relation  of  the  Sentence  to  the  Paragraph.— 

We  shall  not  fully  understand  the  term  unity  if  we  con- 
sider only  single  sentences.  For  the  sentence  is  seldom 
an  independent  unit  of  style:  it  gains  its  meaning  by  its 
relation  to  the  other  sentences  immediately  about  it,  and 
to  the  whole  paragraph  in  Avliich  it  stands.  Roughly 
speaking,  we  may  say  that  a  unified  sentence  represents 
one  step  in  the  progress  of  a  paragraph.^  In  the  follow- 
ing extracts,  for  example,  each  sentence  is  a  clearly 
marked  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  thought: 

1.  There  is  in  the  government  of  the  United  States  no  such 
thing  as  a  Cabinet  in  the  English  sense  of  the  term.  But  I  use 
the  term,  not  only  because  it  is  current  in  America  to  describe 
the  chief  ministers  of  the  President,  but  also  because  it  calls 
attention  to  the  remarkable  difference  which  exists  between  the 
great  officers  of  State  in  America  and  the  similar  officers  in  the 
free  countries  of  Europe. — Brycr:  Tlie  American  Commomvealth. 

2.  I  have  observed  that  a  reader  seldom  peruses  a  book  with 


lit  must  be  remembered  on  the  other  hand,  that  frequently  ^\Ti ters  divide 
a  long  but  unified  sentence  Into  several  short  sentences  for  some  special 
purpose,  such  as  rapidity  or  emphasis.  The  following  extract  illustrates 
the  point :  ' '  No  feature  in  the  government  of  the  United  States  has  awakened 
so  much  curiosity  in  the  European  mind,  caused  so  much  discussion,  received 
so  much  admiration,  and  been  more  frequently  misunderstood,  than  Vaa 
duties  assigned  to  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  functions  which  it  discharges 
in  guarding  the  ark  of  the  Constitution.  Yet  there  is  really  no  mystery 
about  the  matter.  It  is  not  a  novel  device.  It  is  not  a  complicated  device. 
It  is  the  simplest  thing  in  the  world  if  approached  from  the  right  side."— 
BRYCE:  The  American  Commomvealth. 
Yet  the  fact  noted  above  remains  generally  true. 


272  coMPOSiTio:^  and  rhetoric 

pleasure  till  he  knows  whether  the  writer  of  it  be  a  black '  or  a 
fair  man,  of  a  mild  or  choleric  disposition,  married  or  a  bacheloi*, 
with  other  particulars  of  the  like  nature,  that  conduce  very 
much  to  the  right  understanding  of  an  author.  To  gratify  this 
curiosity,  which  is  so  natural  to  a  reader,  I  design  this  paper 
and  my  next  as  prefatory  discourses  to  my  following  writings, 
and  shall  give  some  account  in  them  of  the  several  persons  that 
are  engaged  in  this  work.  As  the  chief  trouble  of  compiling, 
digesting  and  correcting  will  fall  to  my  share,  I  must  do  myself 
the  justice  to  open  the  work  with  my  own  history. — Addisox: 
Tlie  Spectator. 

It  follows,  then,  that  sentences  which,  taken  by  them- 
selves, are  unified,  may  not  be  unified  when  they  are 
looked  at  as  parts  of  a  paragraph.  To  put  it  in  another 
way,  the  sentences  in  a  paragraph  may  be  too  short  for 
unity ;  for  example : 

The  day  was  cold  and  dry.  I  had  wrapped  myself  up  in  a 
cloak  and  a  blanket.  I  wore  two  hoods  and  a  veil  upon  my 
head.  My  hands  were  dressed  in  two  pairs  of  mittens.  After 
seating  myself  in  the  buggy,  I  was  roughly  tucked  in  with  two 
more  blankets.  I  was  so  burdened  with  wraps  that  I  could 
hardly  move. 

This  is  not  only  rough  and  unpleasant,  but  even  illog- 
ical. Facts  which  belong  together  are  forced  into  unnat- 
ural separation,  and  the  reader  is  compelled,  before  he  can 
see  the  relation  of  each  sentence  to  the  others  and  to  the 
paragraph  as  a  whole,  to  combine  some  of  them  in  his 
mind.     Properly  written,  it  reads  as  follows: 

As  the  day,  tliough  dry,  was  cold,  I  had  wrapped  myself  in  a 
cloak  and  a  blanket,  wore  two  hoods,  a  A'eil,  and  two  pairs  of 
mittens.  But  even  this  was  not  enough,  and  after  I  sat  down  in 
the  buggy,  I  was  tucked  in  with  two  more  blankets.  Naturally, 
I  could  hardly  move. 

From  sections  120-121,  the  following  conclusions  may 
bo  drawn:  to  make  our  sentences  units  in  thought,  we 
must  (1)  make  sure  that  each  sentence  has  a  main  idea; 

»  Dark  complexioued. 


UNITY    IN    SENTENCES  ^76 

(2)  exclude  all  details  not  bearing  on  that  main  idcii;  (3) 
make  each  sentence  short  enough  to  he  understood  as  one 
idea,  but  long  enough  to  form  a  definite  section  of  the 
thought  of  the  paragraph  in  which  it  stands. 

122.  Unity  of  Form. — Frequently  we  find'  sentences 
which,  though  they  answer  all  three  of  the  requirements 
just  given,  do  not  seem  unified.  Such  senteuces  show 
the  defect  which  Coleridge  said  was  characteristic  of  the 
sentences  of  uneducated  men — they  present  all  the  ideas 
as  of  equal  importance.  Xow  the  ideas  in  a  sentence 
are  seldom  of  exactly  equal  importance.  Except  in 
those  compound  sentences  which,  as  it  were,  balance  one 
statement  against  another,  unity  demands,  first,  that 
we  separate  our  statements  into  one  main  statement 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  ones,  and  second,  that 
we  make  the  difference  in  relative  importance  clear  at 
first  glance.  Unless  the  main  fact  or  idea — the  one  for 
which  the  sentence  is  written — stands  ont  plainly  from 
the  minor  ones,  the  sentence  lacks  what  we  may  call 
"unity  of  form." 

Instances  of  a  lack  of  unity  of  form  can  bo  found 
in  most  newspapers  and  themes.  "Macduff  got  some 
English  forces  and  marched  to  Birnam  wood,  and 
ordered  them  to  advance  under  cover  of  some  boughs,"  is 
properly  one  sentence,  but  it  is  not  unified.  The  main 
idea  must  be  distinguished  from  the  subordinate  ones. 
"When  Macduff  had  got  his  English  to  Birnam  wood,  he 
ordered  them  to  advance  under  cover  of  boughs,"  is 
unified.  Again,  "She  roved  among  the  fields  and  mead- 
ows with  her  little  playmates,  and  she  passed  a  pleasant 
life,"  is  of  dubious  unity.  "Eoving  among  the  fields  and 
meadows  with  her  little  playmates,  she  passed  a  pleasant 
life,"  is  of  undoubted  unity.  A  longer  example  will  be 
useful,  for  in  short  sentences  there  is  little  chance  for 
errors  of  this  kind : 


274 


COMPOSITION"    AND   RHETORIC 


Nelson  now  met  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  in 
the  engagement  that  followed  he  saw  that  the  Spanish  showed 
signs  of  retreating,  so  he  disobeyed  orders  and  engaged  four  of 
the  enemy  at  once,  and  the  English  were  victorious.   , 

This  sentence  is  strikingly  deficient  in  unity,  yet  every- 
thing in  it  may  properly  be  said  in  one  sentence,  provided 
the  writer  makes  clear  which  is  the  leading  idea.  The 
revised  form  which  follows  makes  the  necessary  dis- 
tinction between  the  major  and  the  minor  statements: 

In  the  engagement  that  followed  Nelson's  meeting  with  the 
Spanish  fleet  oflE  Cape  St.  Vincent,  Nelson,  seeing  that  the  Span- 
ish showed  signs  of  retreating,  disobeyed  orders,  engaged  four 
of  the  enemy  at  once,  and  came  off  victorious. 

Study  of  the  following  extracts  will  reinforce  the  state- 
ment that  a  failure  to  give  the  main  idea  the  main  place 
in  the  sentence  destroys  unity: 


1.  The  man  was  not  regu- 
larly enlisted  in  the  navy,  but 
his  assailant  has  been  pun- 
ished, and  it  is  supposed  that 
there  will  be  no  further  diffi- 
culty with  his  government. 

2.  Throughout  his  novels 
Scott  portrays  with  admirable 
force  and  fire  the  knight's 
thirst  for  battle,  and  this  espe- 
cially pleased  me  in  Ivanhoe. 

3.  I  followed  the  lists  of 
standard  authors  in  my  read- 
ing throughout  the  high  school, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  four 
years  I  was  very  tired  of  the 
"Hundred  Best  Books."  I 
wanted  variety,  and  therefore 
I  wandered  from  the  beaten 
path,  and  it  must  be  said  that 
the  by-ways  are  often  more 
interesting    than     the     direct 


1.  As  the  man  was  not 
regularly  enlisted  in  the  navy, 
and  as  his  assailant  has  been 
punished,  it  is  supposed  that 
there  will  be  no  further  diflli- 
culty  with  his  government. 

2.  What  especially  pleased 
me  in  Ivanhoe  was  the  force 
and  fire  with  which  Scott,  as 
in  all  his  novels,  portrays  the 
knight's  thirst  for  battle. 

3.  Throughout  '  my  h  i  g  h  - 
school  course,  I  followed  in  my 
reading  the  lists  of  standard 
authors ;  and  at  the  end  of  the 
four  years  I  was  very  tired  of 
the  "Hundred  Best  Books."  In 
search  of  variety,  I  wandered 
from  the  beaten  path,  to  be  re- 
warded with  the  discovery 
that,  after  a  long  course  of 
standard    reading,    one    often 


UNITY    IN    SENTENCES  275 

road,  for  few  will  deny  that  finds  the  by-ways  more  inter- 
after  reading  a  long  series  of  esting  than  the  direct  road, 
standard  works  one  may  find  and  gives  to  Jules  Verne, 
unbounded  delight  in  Anthony  Conan  Doyle,  and  Anthony 
Hope,  Conan  Doyle,  and  Jules  Hope,  the  attention  he  refuses 
Verne.  to  Macaulay  and  George  Eliot. 

123.  The  Compound  Form  Often  Destructive  to  Unity. — 

A  second  glance  at  the  examples  cited  under  unity  of 
form  reveals  two  facts:  first,  in  the  revised  sentences  the 
compound  often  gives  way  to  the  complex  construction; 
second,  "and"  and  "but,"  common  in  the  un-unified  sen- 
tences, are  comparatively  rare  in  the  unified  ones.  Long 
compound  sentences  which  depend  for  connectives  chiefly 
on  "but"  and  "and,"  are  apt  to  lack  unity.  Many  sen- 
tences must,  of  course,  from  the  nature  of  the  thought,  be 
compound,  but  many  may  to  advantage  be  changed  from 
compound  to  complex  or  to  compound-complex  statements. 
The  simplest  device  for  making  a  compound  sentence 
complex  is  the  use  of  a  subordinate  clause.  "I  like 
books,  and  I  read  many,  and  I  give  most  of  my  leisure 
time  to  reading,"  lacks  unity  of  form,  "I  like  books 
so  much  that  I  give  most  of  my  leisure  time  to  read- 
ing," has  unity.  A  second  device  is  the  use  of  par- 
ticipial phrases.  If  we  supply  a  participial  construction 
in  the  awkward,  disjointed  statement,  "Ho  was  a  bad 
man,  and  I  knew  he  was,  and  so  I  left  him  to  his  own 
devices,"  it  becomes  the  unified  statement,  "Knowing  him 
to  be  a  bad  man,  I  left  him  to  his  own  devices."  Note, 
too,  the  use  of  the  present  participle  in  the  sentence  about 
Xelson's  battle  with  the  Spanish,  section  122.* 

124.  Summary  of  Chapter. — Sentences,  to  be  perfectly 
clear  and  logical  at  first  glance,  must  be  unified  both  in 
thought  and  in  form.  A  sentence  is  a  unit  in  thought 
when  it  makes  one  complete  statement  and  no  more.     It 

'  lu  connection  with  this  section  the  student  is  urged  to  review  Chapter 


276  COMPOSITIOK    AND    RHETORIC 

is  a  unit  in  form  when  tlie  main  idea  stands  out  from  the 
minor  ones.  To  attain  unity  in  our  sentences  we  must 
consider  not  only  the  amount  of  material  put  into  eacli 
one,  but  also  the  relation  of  each  sentence  to  the  para- 
grapli.  Finally,  we  must  learn  to  avoid  long,  rambling, 
compound  sentences,  accustoming  ourselves  to  the  use 
of  subordinate  clauses,  participles,  and  all  the  many 
devices  for  transforming  a  compound  into  a  complex  sen- 
tence. 

One  additional  remark  may  be  made:  the  time  for 
considering  the  unity  of  our  sentences  is  not  the  moment 
when  we  are  writing  out  our  first  draft,  but  when  we  are 
revising  that  draft. 

Exercise  XVII 

A.  Define  the  term  unity  as  applied  to  sentences.  Dis- 
tinguish between  unity  of  thought  and  unity  of  form. 
What  relation  is  there  between  the  length  and  the  unity 
of  sentences?  What  bearing  on  unity  has  the  relation  of 
the  sentence  to  the  paragraph? 

B.  The  following  sentences  lack  unity.  Correct  them, 
stating  in  each  case  whether  the  defect  is  lack  of  unity  of 
thought,  or  of  foi'm,  or  both : 

1.  Watkins  deserted  from  the  Englisli  navy  in  1890,  and  lived 
in  America  ten  years,  and  then  got  a  pardon  from  King  Edward 
on  his  accession,  and  went  back  to  England  and  married.  But 
an  enemy  had  an  eye  on  liim,  and  a  file  of  soldiers  took  "Jack" 
prisoner  on  the  first  day  after  his  marriage,  and  he  being  unable 
to  produce  his  pardon,  having  sent  it  to  his  aged  mother,  they 
tried  to  hold  liim,  but  he  killed  a  guard  in  escaping,  and  was 
thrown  into  Dartmoor  prison. 

2.  I  was  proud  before,  but  did  not  realize  it,  but  now  it 
asserted  itself,  .and  before  T  was  aware  of  it,  a  sneer  was  painted 
on  my  face. 

.3.  The  water  had  put  life  into  the  logs,  and  though  their 
limbs  were  all  amputated,  they  were  a  very  lively  set,  but  at 
last  their  course  was  checked. 


triSriTT    IN    SENTENCES  277 

4.  Shelley  affirmed  that  the  cause  of  Keats's  death  was  the 
harsh  criticisms  he  had  received  fi'om  certain  of  the  critics.  He 
affirmed  that  Keats  liad  brooded  over  these  until  it  had  ulti- 
mately caused  his  death.  I  do  not  agree  with  Shelley  in  this,  for 
it  is  stated  tiiat  Keats  died  of  consumption.  Tiiough  he  may 
have  grieved  over  these  criticisms,  yet  I  do  not  think  they  were 
the  direct  cause  of  his  death. 

5.  With  the  assistance  of  this  man  his  trunk  was  soon  found, 
inspected,  checked,  and  put  on  top  of  a  cab  wliich  waited  out- 
side, and  as  Paul  was  driven  through  the  crowded  streets,  there 
burst  upon  his  astonished  sight  for  the  first  time  a  full  view  of 
American  city  life. 

6.  Lobo  sat  apart  on  a  knoll,  while  Blanca  with  the  I'est  was 
endeavoring  to  "cut  out"  a  young  cow,  which  they  had  selected; 
but  the  cattle  wei'e  standing  in  a  compact  mass  with  their  heads 
outward,  and  pi-esented  to  the  foe  a  line  of  horns,  unbroken  save 
when  some  cow,  frightened  by  a  fresh  onset  of  the  wolves,  tried 
to  retreat  into  the  middle  of  t!ie  herd.— Ernest  Seton-Thomp- 
SON :  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known. 

7.  She  was  a  wonderful  swimmer,  among  other  things,  and 
one  early  morning,  when  she  was  a  girl,  she  did  really  swim, 
they  say,  across  the  Shannon  and  back,  to  win  a  bet  for  her 
brother,  Lord  Levellier,  the  colonel  of  cavalry,  who  left  an  arm 
in  Egypt  and  clianged  his  way  of  life  to  become  a  wizard,  as  the 
common  people  about  his  neighborhood  supposed,  because  ho 
foretold  the  weather  and  had  cures  for  aches  and  pains  without 
a  doctor's  diploma. — Meredith:  TJie  Amazing  Marriage. 

8.  The  new  President  of  France,  like  his  predecessor,  is  never 
so  happy  as  when  pottering  about  with  a  gun,  and  may  be 
expected  to  make  full  use  of  his  new-fledged  prerogatives  in  con- 
nection with  the  game  preserves,  differing  therein  from  poor 
President  Carnot,  who  never  got  over  the  fact  that  at  one  of  his 
first  shooting  jxirties  after  becoming  President,  he  wounded  an 
official  in  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  the  official  in  consequence 
thereof  being  kept  on  as  chief  of  the  household  in  lieu  of  receiv- 
ing his  dismissal,  which  had  already  been  determined  upon. 

9.  The  Holy  Grail  was  given  into  the  cai'e  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  and  his  descendants,  but  one  of  these  led  a  wicked 
life,  so  that  the  cup  disappeared,  and  it  was  a  custom  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table  to  go  on  long  journeys  in  search 
of  it. 

10.  Milton  was  married  three  times  in  his  life,  the  latter  part 


278  COMPOSITION    AN'D    RHETORIC 

of  wliinli  was  very  unhappy,  as  his  daughters  became  impatient 
of  the  restraints  which  their  father's  blindness  imposed  upon 
thejn. 

11.  Some  of  Longfellow's  greatest  works  are  Evangeline, 
Hiawatha,  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  and  the  Psalm  of 
Life,  and  he  died  in  the  year  1883,  when  he  was  seventy-five 
years  of  age. 

12.  The  eligibility  rules  are  the  first  to  be  considered  by  us,  and 
first  of  all  let  me  say  unqualifiedly  that  they  are  unsatisfactory. 

13.  A  man  who  can  not  play  on  his  college  team  on  account 
of  his  professionalism  has  a  certain  stigma  attached  to  his 
name,  although  he  is  morally  as  good  as  his  fellow-student,  and 
such  a  libel  is  entirely  unwarranted  and  undemocratic. 

14.  There  is  my  uncle's  summer  home;  so  situated  as  to  afford 
him  the  rest  and  seclusion  which  a  busy  man  requires  during 
the  hot  days  of  summer ;  for  instead  of  going  to  a  home  in  the 
city  after  business  hours,  in  such  a  case  one  can  take  a  train, 
and  in  a  short  while,  change  from  a  business  man  into  a  farmer, 
for  this  summer  home  is  a  typical  New  England  farm;  except 
that  the  house  is  more  roomy  than  a  farmhouse  and  has  a  large 
veranda. 

15.  Is  it  possible  that  it  is  "well  known''  that  men  are  "'every- 
where" breaking  their  pledges  and  living  a  lie  by  saying  that  they 
are  amateurs  when  they  are  professionals,  and  have  taken  pay 
for  playing  ball  in  the  summer?  I  can  not  believe  it,  but  even  if 
it  is  so,  still,  surely  the  rule  is  not  incaj^able  of  enforcement 
merely  because  of  the  difficulties  in  ascertaining  a  man's  amateur 
standing,  for  what  is  "well  known"  to  those  on  the  inside  can 
be  known  to  a  committee  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  investi- 
gating, and  while  there  may  be  an  occasional  mistake,  the  gen- 
eral result  will  be  far  better  than  if  we  relax  the  rules  and  open 
the  way  to  the  abuses  which  have  existed  for  so  many  years  in 
almost  every  college  in  the  country. 

16.  Upon  their  arrival  the  boats  are  poled  up  a  narrow  inlet 
made  by  the  digger,  which  scoops  up  the  sand  in  an  endless 
belt  of  cups  and  then  passes  it  through  a  series  of  sieves  which 
sejoarate  it,  until  they  are  opposite  a  pile  of  gravel  which 
the  oyster  man  deems  suitable  for  his  purpose,  and  then  made 
fast. 

17.  At  tlie  first  glance  I  saw  a  room  all  draped  and  hung  with 
Persian  tapestry  and  curtains.  On  the  walls  were  old  weapons, 
lanterns,  and  some  curious  old  pictures.     In  the  middle  of  the 


UXITY    IX    SEXTEXCES  279 

room  was  a  swinging  couch.  This  was  shaped  much  like  an 
ordinary  bed,  being  wide  and  low.  It  was  hung  from  the  ceil- 
ing by  four  heavy,  black  chains,  and  was  covered  by  a  huge. 
Oriental  afghan  of  the  brightest  colors.  On  this  were  innumer- 
able pillows.     These  made  it  look  very  inviting. 

18.  Then  I  examined  numerous  daggers,  stilettos,  shields,  sabres 
and  many  curious  trinkets.  Among  these  trinkets  was  one 
worthy  of  special  notice.  It  was  an  ancient  instrument  of  tor- 
ture. This  was  a  large  iron  ball,  covered  with  chains  and 
spangles.  From  one  side  of  it  protruded  a  long,  sharp  point. 
How  it  was  used,  I  know  not.  But  nevertheless  it  is  a  very 
interesting  object. 

19.  The  Sonthery  will  send  ashore  all  the  prisoners  that  can  be 
accommodated  in  the  temporary  quarters  at  the  Naval  Prison, 
and  immediately  upon  the  new,  remodeled,  and  enlarged  cell 
scheme  being  completed,  as  it  will  be  in  a  month  or  so,  all  the 
prisoners  will  be  transferred  to  the  prison,  and  the  Sonthery 
■will  be  overhauled  for  auxiliary  service,  when  she  will  probably 
be  square-rigged,  and  rearranged'and  i-efitted  as  a  model  training 
shi}),  like  the  U.  S.  S.  Prairie. 

20.  The  Bank  of  England  was  established  in  1694;  the  Bank 
of  France  in  1800;  and  the  German  Imperial  Bank  in  1875;  and 
as  the  people  of  America  believe  that  the  banks  ought  not  to 
regulate  the  currency,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  they  would 
entrust  this  primarily  govei'nmental  function  into  the  hands  of 
such  private  corporations  as  these. 

21.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  surrounded  by  many 
mourners,  among  v.'hom  were  his  three  daugliters,  to  whom  he 
dictated  his  writings,  after  he  became  blind. 

22.  Oliver  Goldsmith  was  born  in  Pallas,  in  1728.  His  family 
was  poor,  and  he  did  not  receive  an  efficient  education,  both  on 
this  account  and  because  he  played  in  school  instead  of  working, 
although  when  he  got  to  college  he  worked  harder. 

23.  Pope  was  born  a  few  miles  from  London,  and  from  the  age 
of  twelve  he  educated  himself  at  home. 

24.  Here  he  began  his  translation  of  Homer,  which  took  him 
fifteen  years,  and  for  it  he  received  £8,000. 

25.  The  Spaarndatn  belongs  to  the  Holland-American  line 
and  should  have  reached  port  two  days  ago. 

26.  It  had  been  decided  to  leave  the  dog  in  the  country  and 
this  grieved  his  little  master  greatly,  but  finally  Romp  was 
allowed  to  go. 


380  CUMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

27.  lu  Book  I  the  stoiy  opens  with  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
Bishop,  and  lie  is  said  to  have  been  a  Bishop  of  Provence. 

28.  The  practice  of  preaching  by  narrative  commends  itself  to 
man}-  ministers.  It  makes  sermons  more  popular.  Popularity 
is  not  the  only  ambition  of  the  minister.  But  he  surely  desires 
to  extend  his  influence.  That  is,  he  wants  to  extend  it  as  far  as 
is  consistent  with  true  helpfulness.  No  form  of  literature  is  so 
popular  as  the  story.  It  is  even  true  that  the  popular  preachers 
are  those  who  make  frequent  use  of  illustrations  and  anecdotes. 
If  this  plan  is  followed,  a  minister  may  begin  a  series  of  sermons 
which  is  but  a  series  of  chapters  of  an  original  novel.  The  same 
characters  are  met  in  each  week's  discourse.  Tlie  plot  gradually 
develops.  The  interest  of  the  hearers  increases  with  each  suc- 
ceeding sermon. 

C.  AVhy  is  the  compound  form  often  destructive  of 
unity?  Enumerate  the  various  ways  of  making  coniiwund 
seutences  complex. 

D.  The  foHowing  compound  sentences  lack  unity, 
liewrite  them : 

1.  Burns's  sudden  friends  forgot  him,  or  at  least  nothing  was 
done  for  him,  and  that  embittered  him,  and  he  returned  to  the 
outer  darkness  of  the  old  straitened  circumstances,  and  doggedly 
resumed  the  burden  of  i^overty  and  toil. 

2.  Satan  was  the  first  to  waken,  and  then  he  called  his  host 
around  him  in  consultation  and  they  decided  to  build  a  large 
castle  and  there  hold  counsel;  so  in  a  very  short  time  Pande- 
monium was  built  and  the  angels  flocked  in  and  filled  the  palace. 

'i.  :Macduff  succeeds  in  getting  .some  English  forces  and 
marches  up  to  Birnam  wood  and  orders  every  man  to  take  a 
brancii  and  march  against  Macbeth  in  Dunsinane,  and  there  he 
maintains  he  was  not  woman-born,  and  in  the  battle  he  meets 
Macbeth  and  kills  him. 

4.  They  become  king  and  queen  now,  and  Macbeth  says  that 
Banquo  is  likely  to  make  trouble  for  him,  and  Macbeth  gets 
tlu-ee  murderers  to  kill  Banquo  and  Fleance,  but  Fleance  escapes. 

5.  We  tried  to  scare  the  creature  from  the  organ,  but  that  was 
impossible  and  then  we  tipped  it  over  and  the  rat  ran  out,  but 
did  not  get  away,  for  Carlo,  the  dog,  was  after  it  and  caught  it 
before  it  could  get  into  a  hole. 

6.  We  are  continually  told,  during  our  .school  course,  that  the 


UNITY    IN    SENTENCES  281 

benefit  we  receive  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  books  we  study 
as  upon  association  with  learned  and  noble  minds,  and  my  point 
is  that  in  the  city  one  has  the  greatest  opportunity  to  meet  and 
hear  eminent  people,  and  so  going  to  scliool  in  the  city  is  better 
than  going  to  school  in  the  country. 

7.  After  murdering  Duncan,  Macbeth  could  not  rest  vmtil 
he  had  put  Banquo  out  of  the  way,  because  he  thought  Banquo 
suspected  the  murder  he  had  committed,  and  besides,  he  wished 
him  and  Fleance,  his  son,  to  be  killed,  because  the  weird  sisters 
had  said  that  the  crowji  would  come  to  them  in  after  time. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

COHERENCE   IN  SENTENCES 

125.  Coherence  Defined. — To  be  clear,  a  sentence  must 
be  not  only  unified,  but  also  coherent — that  is,  it  must 
not  only  state  what  is  clearly  one  idea,  but  it  must  also 
state  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  relation  of  the  parts  of  the 
sentence  to  one  another  is  unmistakable.  If  a  given  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  fails  to  make  clear  its  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  then  we  either  do  not  know  what 
the  sentence  means  at  all,  or  we  hesitate  between  two  or 
more  possible  meanings;  e.  g. : 

1.  Are  the  bears  only  bad  on  1.  Are  the  bears  bad  only  on 
thy  holding? — KiPLlXG:  Kim.  thy  holding? 

2.  Then  he  came  into  the  2.  Then  he  came  into  the 
room  talking  about  the  rela-  room  talking  about  the  rela- 
tions between  Smith  and  John-  tions  between  Smith  and  John- 
son, and  he  said  that  if  he  son,  and  said  that  if  Smith 
didn't  stop  that  sort  of  thing  didn't  stop  irritating  Johnson 
very  soon,  he  was  sure  to  get  very  soon,  he  was  sure  to  get 
into  trouble.  into  trouble. 

3.  The  banker,  though  he  3.  Though  the  banker,  as  is 
trusted  the  teller,  as  is  apt  to  apt  to  be  the  case  with  men  of 
be  the  case  with  men  of  his  his  sort,  trusted  the  teller,  yet 
sort,  yet  felt  that  the  loss  oc-  he  felt  that  the  loss  had  oc- 
curred at  his  desk.  curred  at  the  latter's  desk. 

126.  Ambiguity  Defined. — In  all  of  these  sentences 
except  the  first  we  hesitate  between  two  or  more  meanings. 
This  particular  form  of  incoherence,  which  is  perhaps  the 
commonest  form,  is  called  ambiguity.  The  word  ambigu- 
ity comes  from  the  Latin  amhiguufi,  which  means  "waver- 
ing" or  "uncertain."     Some  of  the  more  usual  causes  of 

383 


COHERENCE    IN    SENTENCES 


283 


ambiguity  are :  unskillful  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the 
sentence;  unskillful  use  of  pronouns;  unskillful  use  of 
participles  and  verbal  nouns  in  "ing. " 

127.  Ambiguous  Arrangement  of  Words. — Frequently  an 
even  ludicrous  ambiguity  results  from  an  improper  arrange- 
ment of  the  words.  The  biographer  who  writes,  "Long- 
fellow secured  rooms  in  the  historic  Craigie  House, 
overlooking  the  Charles  Eiver  in  which  Washington  was 
once  quartered,"  raises  a  smile  at  his  own  expense.  Of 
course,  in  this  particular  sentence,  a  moment's  thought 
removes  all  doubt,  but  often  no  amount  of  consideration 
will  make  the  meaning  clear.  Note  the  complete 
ambiguity  in  example  3,  section  125,  and  in  the  following 
examples : 

1.  As  is  so  often  the  case 
with  an  only  son,  the  old  man 
loved  his  son  warmly ;  but  he 
spoiled  him; 

or. 
The  old  man  loved  his  son 
warmly,   but  he  spoiled  him, 
as  most  only  sons  are  spoiled. 

2.  Their  conductor,  for  the 
purpose  of  misleading  them, 
pursued  an  opposite  road  from 
that  which  Wamba  had  recom- 
mended ; 

or, 

Their  conductor  pursued  an 
opposite  road  from  that  which 
Wamba,  for  the  purpose  of 
misleading  them,  had  recom- 
mended. 

If  the  parts  of  the  sentence  which  are  related  in  thought 
are  kept  together,  and  the  parts  which  are  distinct  in 
thought  are  kept  apart,  ambiguity  from  faulty  arrange- 
ment will  vanish. 


1.  The  old  man,  although  lie 
loved  his  son  warmly,  as  is  apt 
to  be  the  case  with  an  only 
son,  spoiled  him. 


3.  Their  conductor  pursued 
an  opposite  road  from  tliat 
which  Wamba  had  recom- 
mended, for  the  purpose  of 
misleading  them.— S  C  O  T  T  ; 
Ivanhoe. 


284  COMPOSITION    AXD    EHKTORIC 

III  this  connection  the  position  of  the  adverb  "only,*' 
the  negative  particle  "not,"  and  the  correlative  particles 
"either  .  .  .  or,"  "neither  .  .  .  nor"  must  be  specially 
noticed.  A  moment's  thought  will  always  show  the 
writer  just  what  words  these  particles  belong  with;  yet 
the  reader  has  frequently  to  puzzle  out  the  connection  for 
himself.  In,  "I  only  allowed  him  for  the  whole  library 
one  hundred  dollars,"  "only"  belongs  before  "one  hun- 
dred dollars."  In,  "Bat  all  of  this  drudgery  is  not 
without  reward, "  "not"  belongs  before  "all"  unless  the 
sentence  is  an  awkward,  backhanded  Avay  of  saying,  "All 
this  drudgery  gets  its  reward."  In,  "Johnson  and  I 
neither  thought  him  rich  nor  poor,"  "neither"  belongs 
just  before  "rich."  Such  sentences  violate  the  law  that 
things  related  in  thought  should  be  brought  together, 
things  distinct  in  thought  kept  apart. 

128.  Ambiguous  Pronouns. — Pronouns  may  be  used  very 
freely  without  ambiguity,  if  they  refer  always  to  the  same 
person  or  thing.  In  the  following  passage  "he"  is  used 
twelve  times;  yet  the  passage  is  coherent.  Indeed,  the 
repetition  of  "he"  actually  fastens  the  reader's  attention 
more  firmly  on  William  than  would  be  the  case  if  a  variety 
of  nouns  had  been  used: 

The  situation  of  AViUiam  was  very  different.  He  could  not, 
like  those  who  had  ruled  before  him,  pass  an  Act  in  the  spring 
and  violate  it  in  the  summer.  He  had,  by  assenting  to  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  solemnly  renounced  the  dispensing  power ;  and  he  was 
restrained,  by  prudence  as  well  as  by  conscience  and  honour, 
from  breaking  the  compact  under  which  he  held  his  crown. 
A  law  might  be  i3ersonally  offensive  to  him:  it  might  appear  to 
him  to  be  pernicious  to  his  people:  but,  as  soon  as  he  had  passed 
it,  it  was,  in  his  eyes,  a  sacred  thing.  He  had  therefore  a 
motive,  which  preceding  kings  had  not,  for  pausing  before  he 
passed  such  a  law.  They  gave  their  word  readily,  because  they 
had  no  scruple  about  breaking  it.  He  gave  his  word  slowly, 
because  he  never   failed  to    keep    it. — Macaulay;    History  of 


COHERENCE    IN    SENTENCES  285 

Only  too  often,  however,  the  repetition  of  a  pronoun 
means  a  shift  of  the  antecedent  and  a  consequent 
ambiguity;  e.  g. : 

1.  Walters  and  Foster  1.  Walters  and  Foster  agreed 
didn't  agree  with  them :  they  with  us  and  not  with  their 
thought  as  we  did,  and  so  they  old-time  adversaries.  Accord- 
were  forced  to  give  up  their  ingly  the  latter  were  forced 
intention.  to  give  up  their  intention. 

2.  The  thief,  who  was  in  no  2.  The  thief,  in  no  way 
way  daunted  by  the  presence  of  daunted  by  the  presence  of  the 
the  magistrate,  remarked  that  magistrate,  said:  "If  I  had 
if  he  had  been  brought  up  in  been  brought  up  in  luxury,  as 
luxury  as  he  was,  he  also  might  you  were,  I  might  have  been 
have  been  as  worthy  as  he.  as  worthy  as  you." 

3.  General  Johnson's  3.  GeneralJohnson's father, 
father,  also  a  soldier,  died  in  also  a  soldier,  died  in  battle 
battle  before  his  tenth  year.  before  his  son's  tenth  year. 

Among  the  devices  for  ridding  a  sentence  of  tlie  ambigu- 
ity due  to  an  excessive  use  of  pronouns  are:  the  substitu- 
tion of  equivalent  nouns  and  the  unequivocal  "the  former" 
and  "the  latter"  (as  in  example  1  above);  the  use  of 
direct  quotation  in  place  of  the  indirect  (as  in  example  2 
above);  and  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  a  phrase.  When 
clearness  demands  it,  the  best  writers  are  never  afraid  to 
repeat  a  word.  The  following  extracts,  for  instance,  all 
come  from  one  paragraph  of  Macaulay's  History  of  Eng- 
land: 

1.  From  him  sprang,  by  a  singular  kind  of  descent,  a  line  of 
valiant  and  expert  sailors.  His  cabin  boy  was  Sir  John  Nar- 
borough;  and  the  cabin  boy  of  Sir  John  Narborough  was  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel. 

2.  All  their  knowledge  was  professional ;  and  their  professional 
knowledge  was  practical  rather  than  scientific. 

3.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  there  was  in  the  service  of  any 
of  the  Stuarts  a  single  naval  officer  such  as,  according  to  the 
notions  of  our  times,  a  naval  officer  ought  to  be  .  .  . 

Other   faults   in   the    use    of   pronouns   are   not    rare. 


286  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Sometimes  a  pronoun  is  used  without  any  antecedent; 
e.  g.: 

No  doubt  Banquo  was  ambitious,  but  it  did  not  master  him  as 
it  did  Macbeth. 

Here  "it"  is  without  an  antecedent,  because  a  pronoun 
may  not  refer  grammatically  to  an  adjective.  The  reader 
is  left  to  supply  the  noun  "ambition,"  from  the  use  of 
the  adjective  "ambitious." 

Finally,  incoherence  results  if  we  use  a  pnmoun  long 
before  its  antecedent  appears.  In  the  following  extract, 
"they"  is  entirely  vague  until  the  end  of  the  fourth 
line: 

Ballads  are  a  very  interesting  form  of  literature,  but  though 
they  have  made  careful  i-esearches  in  ballad  history,  o.nd  thougli 
they  have  discovered  some  interesting  facts  with  regard  to  sub- 
jects, common  refrains,  and  other  characteristics,  students  of 
this  form  of  literature  have  failed  to  arrive  at  satisfactory  con- 
clusions on  certain  points. 

129.  Ambiguous  Participles  and  Verbal  Nouns  in 
"ing."  —  Participles,  like  pronouns,  are  ambiguous 
when  they  are  used  without  any  antecedent.  Participles 
so  used  are  called  "loose"  or  "hanging"  participles;^ 
e.  g.,  "Looking  out  of  the  window,  it  was  a  fine  day." 
Again,  participles  are  ambiguous  if  they  refer  grammatic- 
ally to  one  word,  logically  to  another.  The  following 
sentence  is  a  casein  point:  "One  day,  being  at  dinner 
with  his  father  and  mother  at  the  house  of  a  neighbor, 
the  servant,  while  passing  the  coffee,  overturned  a  cupful 
on  Macauhiy's  legs."  Here  "being"  refers  grammatically 
to  "servant,"  logically  to  "Macaulay." 

Verbal  nouns  in  "ing"  (i.e.,  gerunds)  are  usually 
ambiguous  unless  the  person  or  thing  understood  as  per- 
forming the  action  indicated  by  the  verbal  noun  is  the  same 

» In  this  connection  see  also  the  discnsslon  of  the  absolute  construction 
In  section  90. 


COHERENCE   IN    SENTENCES  287 

as  the  person  or  thing  made  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 
For  instance,  in,  "After  iiurriedly  eating  my  supper,  a 
friend  came  in,"  "eating"  is  wrongly  used,  because  the 
friend  is  not  the  one  who  eats  the  supper.  The  sentence 
should  read:  "After  I  had  hurriedly  eaten  my  supper,  a 
friend  came  in." 

130.  Incoherence  from  Misuse  of  Connectives. — The 
misuse  of  connectives  will  bring  about  logical  incoherence. 
"But"  and  "and"  are  the  chief  offenders.  Generally 
speaking,  these  two  words  should  connect  ideas  of  equal 
rank,  "and"  showing  similarity  and  "but"  showing  con- 
trast or  a  change  in  thought.  Sometimes  "but"  is  inserted 
where  there  should  be  no  connective,  as  in  the  sentence, 
"In  some  wards  one  can  not  walk  on  the  sidewalk  for  a 
block  without  jumping  open  spaces,  but  in  walking  at 
night  the  danger  is  greatest."  More  frequently  "but"  is 
employed  in  the  place  of  "and,"  as  in  the  sentence, 
"This  indoor  practice  is  merely  to  'limber-up'  the  men, 
but  as  soon  as  the  weather  permits,  they  flock  outdoors." 
Two  "buts"  used  successively  are  likely  to  cause  inco- 
herence; e.g.,  "The  process  was  clear  in  general  to  all 
of  us,  but  some  details  were  obscure,  but  these  details 
could  not  be  learned  in  the  limited  time  the  manager 
would  allow  us  in  the  factory." 

"And"  at  different  times  wrongly  takes  the  place  of  all 
the  various  words  which  indicate  cause  and  effect,  or  con- 
trast. For  example,  in,  "I  thought  it  out  and  I  came  to 
no  conclusion,"  "and"  has  usurped  the  place  of  "but" 
or  "yet."  In,  "There  are  now  en  the  market  many  kinds 
of  paint  to  which  both  shipworms  and  barnacles  yield  at 
once,  and  which  preserve  the  ship  only  a  short  time,"  it 
improperly  displaces  one  of  the  disjunctives,  "but,"  or 
"however."^ 


>  The  use  of  "however"  would  necessitate  a  slight  rearrangement  of  the 
sentence. 


288  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

Watch  your  connectives  to  see  that  each  one  shows  not 
only  the  grammatical  but  also  the  logical  relation. 

131.  Incoherence  from  Shifts  of  Construction. — Less 
serious  than  the  various  ambiguities  enumerated  above, 
but  still  annoying,  is  the  incoherence  resulting  from 
shifts  in  construction.  To  start  a  sentence  in  one 
way  and  finish  it  in  another  is  to  make  a  needless  and 
vexing  demand  on  the  attention  of  the  reader.  For 
instance,  a  student  explaining  how  football  players 
are  placed  upon  the  field,  writes:  "The  opposing  side 
scatters  its  men  so  that  each  one  has  a  certain  part  of 
the  field  to  guard,  and  in  order  to  be  in  position  to  catch 
the  ball  when  it  is  kicked. "  Our  attention  to  his  thought 
is  disturbed,  because,  forgetting  that  the  first  of  his 
descriptive  statements  is  a  clause,  he  makes  the  second  an 
infinitive  phrase.  He  should  have  said :  "The  opposing 
side  scatters  its  men  so  that  each  one  may  have  a  certain 
part  of  the  field  to  guard  and  may  be  in  position  to  catch 
the  ball  when  it  is  kicked."  Again,  in  the  sentence, 
"Just  as  Germany  has  distinguished  herself  in  music, 
the  painters  of  France  have  been  prominent,"  the  writer 
contrasts  Germany  as  a  whole  with  the  painters  of  France. 
"Just  as  Germany  has  distinguished  herself  in  music, 
so  Franco  lias  distinguished  herself  in  painting,"  is  as 
coherent  and  effective  as  the  first  form  was  blurred  and 
ineffective.  Coherence  demands  that  things  similar  in 
thought  should  not  be  noticeably  dissimilar  in  form. 

Vexing  changes  in  construction  are  so  manifold  that 
copious  illustration  is  better  than  a  statement  of  rules: 

1.  Unity  in  the  paragraph  demands  the  development  of  one 
thought,  that  this  thought  should  be  the  principal  idea  of  the 
paragraph,  and  all  other  thoughts  introduced  to  be  plainly 
subordinate  to  tliis  one. 

Here  the  predicate    shifts  in    construction   twice:    "tho 
devel()i)nu'nt  of  the  thought"   is  a  simple  object  phrase; 


COHERENCE    IN    SENTENCES  289 

'that  this  thought  should  be  tlic  jn-iueipul  idea  of  the 
paragraph"  is  a  subordinate  clause;  "'all  other  thoughts 
to  be  subordinate  to  this  one,"  is  an  infinitive  phrase. 
The  sentence  should  read: 

Unity  of  the  paragraph  demands  that  but  one  thought  sliould 
be  developed,  that  this  tliought  should  be  the  principal  idea  of 
the  paragraph,  and  that  all  other  thoughts  should  be  plainly 
subordinate  to  this  one. 

2.  The  three  rules  that  one  should  consider  are:  first,  adapt 
the  style  to  the  thought ;  second,  adapt  the  style  to  the  reader ; 
third,  the  writer  must  make  the  style  represent  himself. 

The  first  tAvo  rules  are  stated  in  the  imperative,  the 
third  rule,  in  the  indicative  mode.  There  is  also  a  vexing 
change  in  phraseology.  The  last  clause  of  the  sentence 
should  read: 

Third,  adapt  the  style,  so  far  as  possible,  to  your  own  char- 
acter. 

3.  We  know  from  the  study  of  the  dead  that  many  suffering 
from  pulmonary  tuberculosis  recover  from  the  disease,  and  the 
patient  dies  of  some  other  disease. 

The  subject  is  changed  from  "many"  to  "the  patient." 
A  better  form  is : 

We  know  from  the  study  of  the  dead  that  [many  suffering 
from  pulmonary  tuberculosis  recover  from  this  disease  and  die 
of  other  causes. 

4.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  und  a  pleasant  dinner  was 
enjo3'ed  by  him.' 

The  subject  and  the  voice  of  the  verb  are  Itotli  shifted 
Eewritten,  the  sentence  reads: 

He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  had  a  plea.sant  dinner. 

5.  Little  did  I  think  at  that  time  of  its  being  so  small,  and 
that  a  part  of  the  windows  were  broken,  or  that  the  foundation 
was  giving  way. 

1  "Was  enjoyed"  is  an  example  of  theso-caUed  "vague  passive,"  In  which 
What  is  logically  an  object  is  wrongly  made  the  subject. 


290  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

"Its  being  so  extremely  small"  is  a  substantive  phrase; 
the  two  parallel  statements  are  given  as  clauses.  '  The 
sentence  should  read: 

Little  did  I  think  at  the  time  of  its  smallness,  its  broken 
windows,  and  its  crumbling  foundation. 

6.  The  line  consists  of  a  center  rush,  who  has  a.  guard  on  each 
side  of  hiui ;  next  to  the  guards  come  the  tackles,  and  then  the 
lines  are  terminated  by  the  players  called  ends. 

There  are  two  changes  in  construction.  "A  center 
rush  who  has  a  guard  on  each  side  of  him"  is  the  object 
of  "of";  the  two  succeeding  statements,  which  in  mean- 
ing are  parallel  to  this  substantive  phrase  and  to  each  other, 
take  the  form  of  dissimilar,  independent  statements.  It 
is  far  better  to  Avrite: 

The  line  consists  of  a  center  rush;  two  guards,  one  standing 
on  each  side  of  the  center  rush;  two  tackles,  placed  just  outside 
the  guards;  and  two  ends,  who  flank  the  tackles. 

7.  And  he  went  frequently  to  the  temples  and  made  offerings 
to  vile  gods,  in  whom  he  did  not  believe,  perhaps,  but  still  he 
gave  them  reverence. — From  the  authorized  translation  of  Quo 
Vadis 

The  clause  in  italics  brings  about  confusion,  because  it 
puts  a  minor  statement,  properly  only  a  ])arallel  to  "in 
whom  he  did  not  believe,'  into  the  form  of  a  main 
statement.  The  clause  should  read,  "to  whom  he  still 
gave  reverence." 

8.  She  went  her  way  in  silence,  through  the  blinding  snow, 
and  no  one  takes  notice  of  her. 

Here  the  writer  purposely  changes  the  tense,  hoping 
thereby  to  secure  vividness,  but  succeeding  only  in  being 
incoherent.  If  a  sentence  begins  in  the  past  tense,  it 
should  end  in  the  past;  if  it  begins  in  the  present,  it 
should  end  in  the  present.  The  writer  also  shifts  the 
subject  from  "she"  to  "no  one."     Far  better  say: 

She  went  her  way  through  the  blinding  snow,  silent  and 
unnoticed. 


COHERENCE  IX  SENTENCES  291 

Incoherent  shifts  of  the  tense  of  subordinate  verbs  in 
complex  sentences,  and  of  complementary  infinitives,  are 
frequent.  For  instance,  "We  should  destroy  all  the  good 
we  have  done,  if  we  follow  his  advice,"  is  wrong,  because 
coherence  rules  that  "should"  goes  with  the  past  subjunc- 
tive, "shall"  with  the  present  subjunctive  (or  the  present 
indicative  in  "if"  clauses).  The  sentence  should  be  either, 
"We  should  destroy,  ...  if  we  followed,"  or,  "We  shall 
destroy,  ...  if  we  follow."  Again,  the  complementary 
infinitive  in,  "Had  he  informed  himself  beforehand,  he 
would  not  have  needed  to  have  taken  so  much  trouble," 
should  be  the  present  infinitive  "to  take,"  because  taking 
the  trouble  is  subsequent  in  time  to  "have  needed."  On 
the  contrary,  "To  have  done  this  is  unwise,"  is  correct, 
because  the  doing  is  considered  as  past  with  reference  to 
"is."  The  tenses  cf  the  subordinate  verb  and  the  com- 
plementary infinitive  are  to  be  settled  by  the  relation  of 
these  verl)s  to  the  main  verb. 

132.  Some  Ways  of  Securing  Coherence. — So  much  of 
this  chapter  has  been  a  mere  statement  of  negative  rules 
that  it  is  well  to  refer  once  more  to  the  basis  of  coher- 
ence —  strict  sequence  of  thought  —  and  to  enumerate  a 
few  of  the  devices  by  Avhich  one  may  gain  coherence. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  device  for  showing  the 
relation  of  thoughts  is  the  use  of  connectives.  If  we 
have  three  facts  which  belong  in  one  sentence,  it  will  not 
always  do  to  put  them  forward  as  coordinate  clauses 
without  links  between  them.  "I  know  this  process,  I 
know  it  is  good,  I  know  it  is  not  advisable,"  is  a  possible 
and  sometimes  an  emphatic  type  of  sentence;  but  usually 
such  a  sentence  does  not  stick  together:  its  joints  need  to 
be  more  firmly  cemented.  Moreover,  the  simplest  con- 
nectives are  not  always  the  best.  If  we  say,  "I  know  that 
this  process  is  good,  and  I  know  that  it  is  possible,  and  I 
know  tliat  it  is  inadvisable,"  we  actually  lose  effective- 


202  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETOIlIC 

ness.  Xor  do  we  gain  mueli  l)y  putting  "but"  in  ^^lace 
of  the  second  "and."  It  is  far  more  coherent  to  say, 
"Though  I  know  this  process  is  good  and  possible,  I  also 
know  that  it  is  inadvisable,"  To  be  coherent,  we  must 
be  able  to  use  freely  all  connectives,  both  coordinate  and 
subordinate— "and,"  "but,"  "however,"  "yet,"  "also," 
"not  even,"  "still,"  "though,"  "nevertbeless." 

The  use  of  participial  phrases  also  helps  colierence; 
e.  g. : 

Verbosity  is  the  use  of  too  A  sentence  is  verbose  wlien, 

many  ■words,   none  of  which,  though    containing    no     word 

however,  can  be  cut  out  with-  which  could  be  spared  without 

out   destroying  the    meaning;  destroying    the     meaning,    it 

yet  the  same  thought  can  be  could  be  stated  more  forcibly 

more  forcibl}'  expressed  with  in  fewer  words, 
fewer  words. 

A  third  device,  especially  useful  in  briiiging  together 
things  related  in  tbouglit,  is  the  wise  use  of  parenthetical 
statements ;  e.  g. : 

At  the  conclusion  of  Captain  At  the  conclusion  of  Captain 

Smith's    testimony,  a    can  of  Smith's   testimony,  a    can    of 

roast  beef    was  examined    by  roast  beef — one  which  had  been 

the  court  which  had  been  witli  with  the  troops  at  Santiago — 

the  troops  at  Santiago.  was  examined  by  the  court. 

Note  the  strict  coherence  in  the  following  sentences: 
no  matter  how  long  the  interpolated  clauses  are,  no  matter 
if  there  is  a  parenthesis  within  a  parenthesis,  all  is  neatly 
joined,  and  nothing  could  be  moved  without  a  loss  of 
coherence: 

1.  The.se  men,  practical  politicians  who  knew  Iiow  infinitely 
difficult  a  business  good  government  is,  desired  no  bold  experi- 
ments.— Bkyce:  The  American  CommonvedUh. 

2.  The  others,  who  were  not  mortally  wounded  like  the 
Admiral,  interfered  with  some  decision,  locked  the  master-gun- 
ner in  his  cabin,  after  having  deprived  him  of  his  sword,  for  he 
manifested  an  intention  to  kill  himself  if  he  were  not  permit-ted 


COnERENCE    IN    SEXTEN'CES  293 

to  sink  the  ship;   and  sent  to  the  Spaniards  to  demand  terms. — 
Stevexsox:  The  English  Admirals. 

133.  Summary  of  Chapter. — Coherence  in  the  sentence, 
as  ill  the  larger  elements  of  composition,  means  a  direct 
sequence  of  ideas  and  an  unequivocal  phrasing.  Inco- 
herence results  if  our  ideas  are  disorderly,  if  Ave  use 
pronouns  ambiguously  or  too  freely,  if  we  use  vague  par- 
ticiples or  gerunds,  and  if  we  make  needless  shifts  of 
construction.  Coherence  is  secured  if  we  bring  related 
things  together,  if  we  employ  connectives  freely,  and  if  to 
statements  similar  in  thought  we  give  similar  form. 
Except  in  the  very  simplest  kinds  of  writing,  coherence  is 
impossible  unless  the  writer  is  able  to  use  freely  the  more 
involved  sentence-forms — forms  including  subordinate 
clauses,  participial  constructions,  and  parenthetical  state- 
ments. 

Exercise  XVIII 

A.  Define  coherence  in  the  sentence.  Does  it  depend 
on  thought  alone?  On  form  alone":*  On  one  more  than 
on  the  other?     Why  is  coherence  indispensable? 

B.  Define  ambiguity.  What  are  the  chief  causes  of 
ambiguity? 

C.  Show  how  poor  arrangement  produces  ambiguity. 
In  the  following  sentences,  the  elements  are  badly 
arranged.  Correct  the  sentences,  giving  in  each  case 
specific  reasons  for  the  changes: 

1.  Our  flat-top  desks  are  suitable  for  teachers  having  closed 
backs  and  top  rails  and  made  both  single  and  double-sided. 

2.  Now  in  St.  Augustine's  Confessions  is  found  one  often- 
quoted  passage,  the  lamentation  for  tlie  death  of  his  youthful 
friend  in  the  fourth  book. 

3.  In  place  of  the  well-bred  and  well-fed  London  domestics, 
who  could  only  speak  English,  Dobbin  procured  for  Jos's  party 
a  swarthy  little  Belgian  servant. — Thackeray:  Vanity  Fair. 

4.  Their  movements  were  only  checked  by  the  advance  of  thQ 
British  in  their  rear. — Ihid, 


294  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC! 

5.  Either  a  customer  should  refuse  to  trade  with  a  merchant 
who  has  not  complied  with  humane  laws,  or  else  patronize  those 
who  do. 

6.  Lost — a  boy's  reefer  going  to  the  lake  yesterday. 

7.  This  little  stream,  as  it  seemed  to  me,  was  populated  by 
millions  of  frogs. 

8.  I  shall  attempt  to  show  that  a  central  bank  should  not  be 
adopted  by  comparison  with  governmental  banks. 

9.  Numerous  have  been  the  complaints  of  the  property  owners 
in  the  village  of  their  depredations. 

10.  Miss  Randall  is  the  daughter  of  Mr.  J.  R.  Randall,  private 
secretary  of  Mr.  Fleming,  a  congressman  from  Maryland,  and 
author  of  "Maryland,  My  Maryland." 

11.  These  are  the  words  of  Brutus  while  meditating  upon  the 
dangers  that  confronted  the  nation  just  after  his  interview  with 
Cassius  in  Act  I,  Scene  1. 

12.  When  but  boys,  as  our  family  had  been  for  generations 
back  in  some  way  connected  with  military  affairs,  my  brother 
and  I  became  intensely  interested  in  the  navy. 

13.  Two  train  loads  of  reindeer  with  ninety-three  Lapps,  Nor- 
wegians, and  Finns,  including  half  a  dozen  bridal  couples,  to 
take  care  of  them,  passed  through  Chicago  this  morning. 

14.  Here  I  joined  a  rather  advanced  English  course  for  one 
who  had  had  so  little  work  as  I. 

IT).  An  albatross  followed  a  ship  that  had  been  driven  into  the 
southern  ice  for  a  number  of  days.  Each  day  the  great  bird 
c^ame  at  the  call  of  the  sailors  for  food. 

IG.  Miss  Edwards  lectured  with  stereopticon  views,  at  Chick- 
ering  Hall,  with  a  musical  voice,  her  broken  left  arm  in  a  sling, 
on  Egypt,  five  or  six  thousand  miles  away. 

17.  Everybody  went  away  having  any  pretensions  to  polite- 
ness.— Thackeray. 

D.  Kemove  the  ambiguous  ])rououus  from  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Poor  policy  was  shown  by  Pericles  in  making  these  expen- 
ditures, as  it  made  the  dependent  allies  jealous. 

2.  The  early  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  lasted  from  about 
40  B.C.  to  410  A.D.,  but  they  left  behind  them  in  all  that  time 
only  six  words. 

3.  I  said:    "I'm  afraid  your  mother  is  worrying."     Sl\e  only 


COHERENCE    IN    SENTENCES  295 

replierl  that  she  would  not  care,  for  she  often  went  away  with- 
out telling  anyone. 

4.  Macbeth  himself  was  preceded  by  a  courier  who  carried  to 
Lady  Macbeth  by  letter  news  of  the  outcome  of  the  battles,  the 
gracious  honors  of  the  king,  and  an  intimation  of  his  proposed 
crime. 

5.  When  the  Khan  got  the  message  from  the  Bashkirs,  he 
went  at  once  to  Weseloff ,  and  told  him  that,  as  he  wanted  to 
escape,  he  might  perhaps  travel  with  him  as  far  as  the  meeting 
place  with  the  Bashkirs. 

6.  He  was,  of  course,  severely  reprimanded,  and  although  he 
fully  expected  it,  he  was  not  deprived  of  his  command. 

7.  But  there  is  another  reason  why  this  prohibition  should  be 
put  into  force :  it  is  dangerous  to  public  health. 

8.  Tamino,  an  Egyptian  prince,  becomes  enamored  of  Pamina, 
the  daughter  of  the  Queen  of  Night,  who  has  been  taken  away  by 
Sarastro,  High  Priest  of  Isis. 

E.  Find  examples  in  your  reading  of  a  skillful  use  of 
pronouns. 

F.  Correct  the  mistakes  in  the  use  of  participles  and 
gerunds  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  On  returning  to  our  starting  point,  the  landscape  assumed 
an  entirely  different  aspect. 

2.  William  Munson  had  a  narrow  escape  yesterday;  while 
being  conveyed  to  the  station,  the  pole  to  the  sleigh  broke, 
causing  the  horses  to  run  away. 

3.  The  energy  and  interest  manifested  by  your  agency  in 
securing  me  a  position  was  intensely  gratifying,  and  especially 
so  because  of  the  fact  that  you  had  me  placed  before  vacation 
opened,  thereby  insuring  a  satisfactory  summer,  without  worry- 
ing concerning  the  future  and  having  the  added  pleasure  of 
anticipation. 

4.  The  fly-hook  is  used  almost  altogether,  and  while  fishing  is 
kept  constantly  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

5.  Passing  along  the  avenues  of  the  old  town,  our  thoughts 
drifted  from  music  to  poetry. 

6.  By  placing  on  file  with  us  a  description  of  your  present 
position,  salary,  opportunities,  evidences  of  your  work,  photo- 
graph, and  a  few  strong  references,  and  under  what  conditions 
you  would  make  a  change,  this  agency  feels  confident  it  can  be 
of  service  to  you. 


396  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

7.  Soon  after  taking  our  chairs,  tlie  long  lines  of  convicts 
began  to  file  in  and  take  their  accustomed  places. 

8.  After  loading  up  at  the  foundry,  the  return  trip  was  begun. 

9.  The  use  of  all  the  current  magazines,  while  they  are  still 
new  and  fresh,  retaining  them  as  long  as  desired,  and  tluis 
securing  the  pleasure  of  pervising  all  at  a  small  cost,  is  another 
advantage  \Vhich  the  Chicago  "Mudie's"  promises. 

10.  Having  an  adetpiate  stock  of  general  literature,  special 
attention  will  be  given  to  the  departments  of  fine  arts,  sociology, 
theoretical  and  applied  science,  and  children's  reading. 

11.  Being  both  Hyde  Parkers,  Mr.  Walker  a  contractor  here 
for  the  last  twenty  years,  and  Mr.  Merton  connected  with  L.  M. 
Brown  for  the  past  sixteen  years,  you  will  not  be  dealing  with 
strangers. 

G.  Give  Ji  list  of  the  commoner  connectives,  telling 
in  each  case  just  what  sort  of  connection  the  Avord  indi- 
cates. 

H.  In  the  following  sentences,  connectives  have  heen 
misused.  Point  out  the  faults,  and  rewrite  the  sen- 
tences: 

1.  It  was  an  old  tumble-down  house  about  which  I  am  going 
to  speak,  for  before  the  Civil  War  it  had  had  a  great  reputation 
and  now  it  was  falling  into  decay. 

2.  Nor  is  Sir  Roger  an  ideal  personage  created  by  the  author's 
genius,  but  there  are  such  people  now,  though  of  course  not 
many. 

3.  Then  my  country  called  upon  me  to  serve  in  the  Afri(;an 
and  in  the  Pacific  .squadrons;  but  when  our  Civil  War  demancUnl 
my  demonstration  of  American  patriotism  I  gave  myself  to  the 
cause  of  tlie  Union. 

4.  Thousands  of  sliips  liave  been  made  useless  :by  coming  in 
contact  with  a  copper-bottomed  boat,  but  the  naval  authorities 
iiave  liad  to  issue  strict  orders  forl)idding  anchoring  near  a 
copper-bottomed  boat. 

5.  That  disputes  should  ari.se  between  two  persons  of  su(;h 
different  tastes  was  inevitable ;  and  the  trouble  which  came  was 
duo  primarily  to  the  character  of  the  daughter. 

0.  Tlie  water  was  clear  and  bright;  far  in  the  distance,  how- 
ever, shone  a  single  white  sail. 

7.  This  rule  is  undoubtedly  severe   and   strict,    working  an 


COHERENCE  IN  SENTENCES  "  297 

occasional  hardship,  but  it  was  not  framed  in  haste,  but  after 
the  most  careful  consideration  and  thought. 

/.  In  what  way  does  a  shift  of  construction  impair 
coherence?  Discuss  the  shifts  of  construction  in  tlio 
following  sentences.     Correct  the  sentences : 

1.  By  continuity  is  meant  the  natural  development  of  one  sen- 
tence from  the  one  preceding,  and  that  this  next  sentence  should 
serve  as  an  introduction  for  the  following. 

2.  Tiie  Canterbanj  Tales  by  Cliaucer,  were  written  to  repre- 
sent a  company  of  people  of  all  classes  who  gathered  at  the 
Tabard  Inn,  and  from  there  they  were  going  to  the  shrine  of  St. 
Thomas  a  Becket. 

3.  Instead  of  liaving  a  desirable  effect  upon  the  boj'S,  this 
school  has  a  decidedly  opposite  one ;  instead  of  sending  the  boy 
out  into  the  world  a  better  lad,  he  leaves  the  school  more  dishon- 
est than  before. 

4.  But  as  his  eye  falls  upon  his  lovely  wife  and  the  rosy  baby 
beside  her  in  the  nur.se*s  arms,  well  may  his  soul  have  been 
quieted  and  his  great  lieart  have  swelled. 

5.  He,  with  his  two  friends,  Florian  and  Cyril,  determined  on 
going  to  the  father  of  the  Princess,  and  there  he  would  try  to 
gain  the  Princess's  love  by  her  father's  intercession. 

6.  In  paragraphing,  it  is  neces.saiy  to  have  colierence;  that  i.-:^, 
in  going  from  one  paragraph  to  another,  they  must  be  connected 
in  thought. 

7.  Tlie  Faerie  Queene  is  supposed  to  be  Queen  Elizabeth.  Tlie 
poem  pictures  a  knight  riding  to  some  uidvuown  cave  with  a 
beautiful  lady,  and  then  he  ligiits  with  the  dragon  which  he 
meets  there,  and  is  victorious. 

8.  Throughout  the  story,  the  Princess  seems  to  be  under  the 
influence  of  another  woman,  and  was  taught  or  was  trying  to 
Ifclieve  she  hated  men. 

9.  She  hates  Arthur,  despises  his  father,  and  the  only  .sparlc 
of  feeling  shown  is  toward  little  Dorrit. 

10.  If  the  meeting  had  been  treated  seriously  instead  of  treat- 
ing it  as  a  farce,  I  think  that  some  good  speeches  would  have 
been  heard.  ' 

11.  An  attempt  will  be  made  on  Sunday  to  enforce  the  state 
"blue  la^vs,'"  tlie  newsdealers  having  been  forbidden  to  sell 
papers  Sunday  and  the  livery-men  from  running  public  carriages. 


298  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    KIIETORIC 

12.  Tlie  bill  calls  for  a  board  of  three  men  salaried^  at  §3,000 
per  annum,  who  shovild  have  absolute  control  of  the  police 
department  and  in  addition  to  control  the  distribution  of  all 
licenses. 

13.  Tiffany  &  Co.  claim  for  their  stock,  in  comparison  with 
any  other  in  this  country,  superiority  for  its  extent,  quality,  and 
beauty,  and  further,  that  their  prices  are  as  low  as  those  of  any 
other  house. 

14.  The  citizens  have  home  rule  now  just  as  much  as  before, 
only  that  we  believe  they  have  a  better  home  rule. 

15.  He  makes  us  eagerly  watch  the  march  of  Marmion  and  his 
band  to  the  north,  and  breathlessly  is  tiie  outcome  of  Constance 
De  Beverley's  trial  awaited. 

16.  Finding  that  his  ends  could  not  be  accomplished  by  fair 
means,  those  of  a  baser  sort  were  resorted  to  by  him. 

J.  What  are  the  rules  for  the  tenses  of  subordinate 
verbs  in  complex  sentences,  and  of  the  complementary 
infinitive?  Which  of  the  following  sentences  are  correct? 
Rewrite  the  incorrect  ones : 

1.  Peggy,  for  her  part,  would  have  liked  to  have  shown  her 
turban  and  bird  of  paradise  at  the  ball. —Thackeray  :  Vanity 
Fair. 

2.  He  would  not  liave  needed  to  liave  taken  so  much  trouble  if 
he  had  informed  himself  beforehand. 

3.  It  would  have  been  a  cruel  thing  to  have  done  to  liave 
turned  a  deserving  man  away  from  the  door. 

4.  A  week  later,  tliough  I  would  have  given  much  to  have 
avoided  it,  I  met  on  the  road  to  the  Mussulman  burying-ground. 
Imam  Din. — Kipling:  Muhammad  Din. 

5.  It  would  be  worthless,  if  we  do  so. 

6.  We  shall  not  succeed  if  we  do  not  grant  his  wish. 

7.  We  sliould  lose  the  fruits  of  our  past  endeavors,  if  we  run 
counter  to  the  will  of  the  people. 

8.  They  would  like  to  have  asked  him  questions  about  him- 
self.—P.  L.  Ford:  The  Honorable  Peter  Stirling. 

9.  She  would  not  have  even  wanted  to  have  done  such  a  thing 
if  she  had  known  the  effect. 


»Is  the  use  of  the  word  "  salary  "  as  a  verb  justitiable? 


CHAPTER    XIX 
FORCE   IN   SENTENCES 

134.  Force  Partly  Dependent  on  the  Form  of  Sentences. — 

From  the  quality  of  clearness  in  sentences  we  now  turn  to 
that  of  force — the  quality  that  holds  the  attention  of  the 
reader.  Force,  of  course,  depends  on  many  things — on 
the  strength  of  the  idea,  on  the  individuality  and  com- 
pactness of  the  phrasing,  on  the  general  vigor  of  the 
writer's  mind.  But  the  mere  form  of  the  sentences  is  of 
more  influence  than  one  at  first  thinks.  The  most  inter- 
esting of  facts  and  the  most  vigorous  of  phraseology  will 
not  give  a  style  force  if  the  sentences  are  dragging  or 
monotonous.  Stevenson,  a  writer  whose  style  is  noted  for 
excellence  of  form,  remarks  in  this  connection: 

.  .  .  the  one  rule  is  to  be  infinitely  various;  to  interest,  to  dis- 
appoint, to  surprise,  and  yet  still  to  gratify ;  to  be  ever  chang- 
ing, as  it  were,  the  stitch,  and  yet  still  to  give  the  effect  of  an 
ingenious  neatness. — Stevenson:  On  Some  Technical  Elements 
of  Style  in  Literature. 

How  true  this  is  the  student  can  easily  see  from  con- 
trasting the  two  extracts  given  below.  The  details  in  tlie 
first  extract  are  well-chosen,  yet  the  passage  is  dull.  Its 
dullness  is  in  large  part  a  direct  result  of  its  monotonous 
sentence-structure : 

1.  I  went  into  the  parlor.  It  was  an  old-fashioned  room  fur- 
nished accordingly.  In  the  centre  was  a  table  of  some  black 
wood,  with  slender  legs  and  glass  casters.  On  the  polished  top 
of  this  was  an  old  lamp,  whose  stand  was  of  bronze.  In  one 
corner  was  a  rosewood  grand  piano,  whose  keys  were  yellow 
with  age.     Next  it  stood  a  dark-colored  music  stand,  prettily 

299 


300  COM  POSITION'    AND    KIIETOKIG 

ornamented  with  inlaid  work.  The  chairs  were  of  the  old-fash- 
ioned, straight-back  variety.  On  the  wall  hung  the  family  por- 
traits in  heavj',  gilt  frames,  then  two  or  three  landscapes  in  oil. 
A  tall,  oval  mirror  was  also  standing  like  a  sentinel  over  the 
room.  The  windo%vs  were  low,  with  inside  shutters,  and  cur- 
tained with  fine  lace. — (A  student's  theme.) 

2.  It  was  a  low-studded  room,  with  a  beam  across  tlie  ceiling, 
panelled  with  dark  wood,  and  having  a  large  chimney-piece,  set 
round  with  pictured  tiles,  but  now  closed  by  an  iron  fire-board, 
through  which  ran  the  funnel  of  a  modern  stove.  There  was  a 
carpet  on  the  floor,  originally  of  rich  texture,  but  so  worn  and 
faded  in  these  latter  years  that  its  once  brilliant  figure  had  quite 
vanished  into  one  indistinguishable  hue.  In  the  way  of  furni- 
ture, there  were  two  tables:  one,  constructed  with  perplexing 
intricac}-  and  exhibiting  as  many  feet  as  a  centipede :  the  other, 
most  delicately  wrought,  with  four  long  and  slender  legs,  so 
apparently  frail  that  it  was  almost  incredible  wliat  a  length  of 
time  the  ancient  tea-table  had  stood  upon  them.  Half  a  dozen 
chairs  stood  about  the  room,  straight  and  stiff,  and  so  ingen- 
iously contrived  for  the  discomfort  of  the  human  person  that 
they  were  irksome  even  to  sight,  and  conveyed  the  ugliest  pos- 
.sible  idea  of  the  state  of  society  to  which  tliey  could  have  been 
adapted.  One  exception  there  \\as,  however,  in  a  very  antique 
elbow-chair,  with  a  high  back,  carved  elaborately  in  oak,  and  a 
roomy  depth  within  its  arms,  that  made  up,  by  its  spacious  com- 
prehensiveness, for  the  lack  of  any  of  those  artistic  curves  which 
abound  in  a  modern  chair. — Hawthorne :  The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables. 

The  greater  charm  of  tlic  second  passage  is  evident. 
1)11 1  the  charm  of  variety  is  not  the  only  reason  for  the 
variability  of  the  sentence-structure  in  good  style.  In 
good  style,  there  is  a  rough  correspondence  between  the 
nature  of  the  idea  and  the  form  of  statement.  One  can 
hardly  imagine  even  live  snccessivo  statements  which 
coiiM  |)i-(>j)(M-ly  he  put  into  sentences  of  exactly  the  same 
riirm  and  length.  Jlcnce  the  habit  most  students  have  of 
slicking  invariably  to  one  length  and  one  type  of  sentence 
produces  a  style  not  only  dull  but  positively  illogical/ 

*  See  also  section  131. 


FORCE    I]<r    SEXTE>rCES  301 

135.  Loug  and  Short  Sentences. — The  simplest  kind  of 
vuriation  in  sentences  is  from  chort  to  long.  A  series  of 
short  sentences  unrelieved  by  a  loug  one  usually  produces 
an  effect  of  crudity,  distracting  jerkiness,  or  even  sensa- 
tionalism ;  e.g.: 

1.  Some  people  say  that  there  is  no  romance  in  India.  Those 
people  are  wrong.  Our  lives  hold  quite  as  much  romance  as  is 
good  for  us.  Sometimes  more. — Kipling:  Plain  Tales  from  the 
Hills. 

2.  The  barbarians  posted  at  Hippo-Zarytus  perceived  liis  army 
as  it  descended  from  the  mountain. 

Where  could  the  Carthaginians  be  going"?  Hunger,  no  doubt, 
was  urging  them  on ;  and,  di.stracted  by  their  sufiferings,  they 
were  coming  in  spite  of  their  weakness  to  give  battle.  But  they 
turned  to  the  right ;  they  were  fleeing.  They  might  be  overtaken 
and  be  all  crushed.     The  barbarians  dashed  in  pursuit  of  them. 

The  Carthaginians  were  checked  by  the  river.  It  was  wide 
this  time,  and  the  west  wind  had  not  been  blowing.  Some 
cro.ssed  by  swimming  and  the  rest  on  their  shields.  Tliey 
resumed  their  march.  Night  fell.  They  were  out  of  sight. — 
(From  a  translation  of  Flaubert's  Salamnibo. ) 

An  uninterrupted  succession  of  long  sentences  produces 
exactly  the  opposite  effect  from  choppiness  and  sensation- 
alism. It  makes  the  style  dull,  heavy,  and  at  times  even 
obscure ;  e.  g.  • 

Of  the  passions  with  which  the  mind  of  man  is  agitated,  it 
may  be  observed,  that  they  naturally  hasten  towards  their  own 
extinction,  by  inciting  and  quickening  the  attainment  of  their 
objects.  Thus  fear  urges  our  flight,  and  desire  animates  our 
progress;  and  if  there  are  some  which  perhaps  may  be  indulged 
till  they  outgrow  the  good  appropriated  to  their  satisfaction,  as 
it  is  frequently  observed  of  avarice  and  ambition,  yet  their  im- 
mediate tendency  is  to  some  means  of  happiness  really  existing, 
and  generally  within  the  prospect.  The  miser  always  imagines 
that  there  is  a  certain  sum  that  will  fill  his  heart  to  the 
brim;  and  every  ambitious  man,  like  King  Pyrrhus,  has  an 
acquisition  in  his  thoughts  that  is  to  terminate  his  labors,  after 
whi(!h  he  shall  pass  the  rest  of  his  life  in  ease  or  gaiety,  in  repose 
or  devotion. — Johnsox:  Tlie  Rambler. 


302  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

Any  given  bit  of  writing,  liowever,  may  properly  have 
one  prevailing  typo  of  sentence.  Short  sentences  are  most 
useful  when  the  nature  of  our  thought  denuuuls  simplicity 
and  easy  rapidity ;  long  sentences  when  it  denuinds  dignity 
and  a  careful  weighing  of  the  relative  importance  of  our 
statements.  Sliort  sentences  are  most  natural  in  hitters, 
descriptions,  and  stories,  l)ecause  thi're  the  thought  con- 
sists, in  large  l)art,  of  simi)le,  unmodilied  statements ;  long 
sentences  are  most  natural  in  the;  graver  sort  of  liistorical 
narratives  and  essays  of  all  kinds,  because  there  the  more 
abstract  thought  often  denumds  that  the  nuiin  idea  bo 
moditied  imnu'diatrly,  bct'oi-e  we  pass  (Ui  to  another  scni- 
tence.  In  the  following  four  extracts,  all  but.  one  from 
the  same  author,  there  is  a  steady  increase  in  the  length 
of  sentences — an  increase  corres])()nding  to  a  change  in 
the  nature  of  llie  sul)ject  matter: 

The  Kiiigof  France  has  suinnioned  the  Duke  of  Guise  to  an 
early  consultation  iu  his  bedeluunber.  In  response  to  tiie  flat- 
tering call,  the  Duke  ilons  the  splendid  costume  of  the  courtier 
and  hastens  to  the  palace.  The  doors  fly  open  before  him,  and 
bowing  pajijes  lead  the  way  to  the  royal  chamber.  They  lift  the 
heavy  curtains  at  tlio  door  and  the  astonislied  Duke  sees  a  double 
row  of  noblemen  standing  befovo  him.  He  pauses  for  a  moment. 
The  next,  tho  ih-st  oi  tlie  lino  has  snatched  him  into  the  room, 
n\eanwhile  stabbing  him  in  the  back.  Struggling  again.st  their 
swords,  he  reaches  tho  bed  ;  he  clutches  the  embroidered  tape.stry 
hanging  from  the  canopy.  But  the  .struggle  is  over.  Only  for 
an  instant  c-ould  the  drapery  shield  him,  and  he  falls,  wrapped 
in  its  folds.  The  nmrderers  .stare  at  their  victim  and  wipe  their 
bloody  blades,  wliile  from  his  hilling  i)Iace  steps  the  king.— 
(.V  student's  theme.) 

Here  the  wi'iici-  uses  very  short  scnten'ces  to  give 
rapidity.  Historical  writers — iMacaulay,  for  instance — 
use  tills  device  fre(|ucntly  when  they  wisii  to  survey  brielly 
a  nnndu'r  of  facts  or  I'vents,  (tr  to  rcpi'ddncc  on  the  page 
the  huiry  of  reality. 

We  made  a  curious  figure,  had  anyone  been  there  to  see  us;  all 


FORCE    IX    SENTENCES  303 

in  soiled  sailor  clothes,  and  all  but  me  armed  to  the  teeth.  Sil- 
ver liad  two  guns  slung  aVx>ut  him — one  before  and  one  behind — 
besides  the  great  cutlass  at  his  waist,  and  a  pistol  in  each  pocket 
of  his  square-tailed  coat.  To  complete  his  strange  appearance, 
Captain  Flint  sat  perched  upon  his  shoulder  and  gabbling  odds 
and  ends  of  purposelass  sea-talk,  I  had  a  line  about  my  waist, 
and  followed  obediently  after  the  sea-cook,  who  lield  the  loose 
end  of  the  rope,  now  in  his  free  hand,  now  between  his  power- 
ful teetli.  For  all  the  world,  I  was  led  like  a  dancing  bear. — 
Stevenson  :  TreoKiire  Inland. 

This  is  the  ordinary  style  of  imaginative  narration  in 
passages  where  the  action  is  not  hurried.  The  sentences 
are  not  noticeably  long  or  short. 

There  is  one  story  of  the  wars  of  Rome  which  I  have  always 
very  much  envied  for  England.  Germanicus  was  going  down  at 
the  head  of  the  legions  into  a  dangerous  river — on  the  ojjposite 
bank  the  wof'jds  were  full  of  Germans — when  there  flew  out 
seven  great  eagles,  which  seemed  to  marshal  the  Romans  on 
their  way ;  they  did  not  pau.se  or  waver,  but  disappeared  into 
the  forest  where  the  enemy  lay  concealed.  "Forwardl"  cried 
Germanicus,  with  a  fine  rhetorical  inspiration,  "Forward!  and 
follow  the  Roman  Ijirds.''  It  would  Vje  a  very  heavy  spirit  that 
did  not  give  a  leap  at  such  a  signal,  and  a  very  timorous  one 
that  continued  to  have  any  douVjt  of  success. — Stevenson:  The 
English  Admirah. 

The  author's  interest  here  is  not  so  much  in  the  anec- 
dote as  in  the  point  he  wishes  to  make  the  anecdote 
prove.  The  sentences  are  both  longer  and  more  involved 
than  those  in  the  preceding  extracts. 

To  write  with  authority  about  another  man,  we  must  have 
fellow-feeling  and  some  common  ground  of  experience  with  our 
subject.  We  may  prai.se  or  blame  according  as  we  find  him 
related  to  us  by  the  best  or  worst  in  ourselves ;  but  it  is  only  in 
virtue  of  some  relationship  that  we  can  be  his  judges,  even  to 
condemn.  Feelings  which  we  sViare  and  understand  enter  for  us 
into  the  tissue  of  the  man's  character;  those  to  which  we  are 
strangers  in  our  own  experience  we  are  inclined  to  regard  as 
blots,  exceptions,  inconsi.stencies,  and  excursions  of  the  diabolic; 
we  conceive  them  with  repugnance,  explain  tlieia  with  diffi- 


304  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

culty,  and  raise  our  hands  to  heaven  in  wonder  when  we  find 
them  in  conjunction  witli  talents  that  we  respect  or  virtues 
that  we  admire. — Stevenson:  Some  Aspects  of  Robert  Burns. 

Here  the  author  is  not  merely  rx3connting  events  or 
stating  bare  facts,  but  is  developing  an  idea.  In  contrast 
to  the  other  examples,  the  sentences  seem  long  and  intri- 
cate. But  they  are  not  unduly  so:  we  can  not  often 
explain  a  point  of  theory,  be  it  either  of  engineering  or  of 
literary  criticism,  in  the  brief,  simple  sentences  we  use  in 
telling  of  a  hunt  after  buried  treasure. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  though  every  one  of  the  four 
extracts  has  a  prevailing  typo  of  sentence,  every  one  has  at 
least  one  sentence  not  of  the  prevailing  type.  As  Steven- 
son said,  "the  one  rule  is  to  be  infinitely  various." 

136o  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences. — A  judicious  min- 
gling of  loose  and  periodic  sentences  will,  like  a  mingling 
of  short  and  long  sentences,  give  a  style  variety.  A  peri- 
odic sentence  is  one  which  is  not  a  grammatically  com- 
plete statement  until  the  last  word  is  reached.  A 
sentence  which  might  be  grammatically  completed  at  one 
or  more  points  before  the  end,  is  called  loose.  In  the  fol- 
lowing extract  the  first  sentence  is  periodic,  the  second 
loose: 

Then,  Sir,  from  these  six  capital  sources;  of  descent;  of  form 
of  government;  of  religion  in  tlie  nortliern  provinces;  of  man- 
ners in  the  southern ;  of  education ;  of  tlie  remotene.ss  of  situation 
from  llie  first  mover  of  government;  from  all  these  causes  a 
fierce  spirit  of  liberty  has  grown  up.  It  has  grown  with  the 
growth  of  the  people  in  your  colonies,  and  increased  with  the 
increase  of  their  wealth;  a  spirit,  tliat  unhappily  meeting  with 
an  exercise  of  power  in  England,  which,  however  lawful,  is  not 
reconcilable  to  any  ideas  of  liberty,  much  less  with  theirs,  has 
kindled  this  flame  that  is  ready  to  consume  us.— Burke:  Speech 
o»i  Cmiciliotion  with  America. 

In  good  writing,  there  is  always  more  or  less  change 
from  tlie  loose  to  the  periodic  structure.     But  the  case 


FORCE    IX    SEXTEXCES  305 

is  not  exactly  what  it  is  with  long  and  short  sen- 
tences. To  be  sure,  a  style  which  never  had  a  periodic 
sentence  would,  like  a  style  Avhich  never  mingled  long 
with  short  sentences,  be  monotonous.  But  a  style  which 
had  only  periodic  sentences  would  be  worse  than  monoto- 
nous: it  would  be  un-English.  For,  owing  to  the  unin- 
flected  character  of  English,  the  normal  English  sentence 
is  loose.  Johnson,  one  of  the  most  periodic  of  English 
writers,  has  not  more  than  four  strictly  periodic  sentences 
to  the  page.  Note  how  unnatural  the  consistent  suspen- 
sion of  the  sense  makes  the  following  extract : 

In  the  beautiful  village  of  Weimar,  in  the  springtime  ot  1833, 
just  as  the  dial  was  touching  noon,  there  sat  in  his  easy  chair, 
with  mind  flitting  hither  and  thither,  the  great  poet  Goethe. 
Surrounded  by  friends  near  and  dear,  who  had  failed  to  bar  the 
door  against  the  death  angel,  beneath  the  wings  of  the  shadowy 
messenger  that  hovered  obtrusively  near,  he  was  slowly  breath- 
ing forth  his  life.  While  he  still  felt  the  warm  clasp  of  the  hand 
in  his,  while  friendly  voices  sounded  yet  near,  while  the  loved 
faces  were  just  beginning  to  fade  from  his  sight,  mistaking  the 
approach  of  death  for  eventide,  he,  lifting  his  almost  palsied 
hand  and  beckoning  toward  the  open  window,  orieil,  ''More 
light." 

In  English,  then,  the  strictly  periodic  form  must  bo 
used  with  caution.  It  can  not  be  the  form  in  any  very 
large  proportion  of  our  sentences.  But  if  we  allow  our- 
selves to  apply  the  term  periodic  to  those  sentences  which 
suspend  the  sense  until  within  a"  word  or  two  of  the  end, 
the  proportion  of  periodic  sentences  possible  in  English 
increases  largely.  In  point  of  fact,  such  sentences  as  the 
following  are  to  all  intents  and  proposes  periodic,  and  we 
may  well  invent  a  term  and  call  such  sentences  "periodic 
in  effect": 

1.  But  now  that  which  I  have  called  tlie  tyranny  of  the  liuman 
face  began  to  unfold  itself.— De  Quincey:  ConfessionH  of  an 
English  Opium-eater. 

2.  Deeper  than  ever  plummet  sounded,  I  lay  inactive. — Ibid. 


306  COMPOSITIOii    AST)    RHETORIC 

3.  There  is  a  view  [of  culture]  in  which  all  tlie  love  of  our 
neighbour,  the  impulses  towards  action,  help,  and  beneficence, 
the  desire  for  removing  human  error,  clearing  human  confusion, 
and  diminishing  human  misery,  the  noble  aspiration  to  leave 
the  world  better  and  happier  tlian  we  found  it, — motives  emi- 
nently such  as  are  called  social, — come  in  as  part  of  the  grounds 
of  culture,  and  the  main  and  preeminent  part. — Matthew 
Arxold:  Culture  and  Anarchy. 

A  style  which    has    many  si;ch    sentences    mtij  properly 
be  called  a  periodic  style. 

The  most  striking  virtne  of  the  j)eriodic  sentence  and  of 
the  sentence  "periodic  in  effect"  is  that  they  increase 
clearness  by  presenting  an  idea  as  a  whole:  the  very  form 
prevents  the  Avriter  from  putting  forward  his  idea  and  then 
modifying  it  half  a  dozen  times.  Loose  sentences  sprawl 
or  not,  according  to  the  skill  of  the  writer;  a  periodic 
sentence  is,  by  its  very  form,  coherent  and  compact.  A 
second  good  quality  in  periodicity  is  that  it  gives  a  chance 
to  show  clearly  the  relation  of  the  thoughts,  to  distinguish 
the  major  from  the  minor  ideas,  and  to  hide  the  minor 
parts  away  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence.  Finally,  though 
the  periodic  form  is  pompous  if  uiiintelligently  handled, 
intelligently  handled  it  lends  dignity  to  a  style.  Xote  the 
gain  that  comes  from  making  the  following  loose  sentences 
wholly  or  in  part  periodic: 

1.  Patents  were  issued  after-  1.  In  man}-  cases  patents 
wards  in  many  cases,  but  these  were  afterwards  issued.  But 
entries  are  very  important  where  they  were  not,  these 
where  they  were  not,  as  they  entries,  which  are  the  founda- 
are  the  foundation  of  the  title  tion  of  the  title  to  the  laud,  are 
to  the  land.                                          very  important. 

2.  London  is  the  work  ^\e  2.  And  the  work  which  we 
collective  children  of  God  do,  collective  children  of  God  do, 
our  grand  centre  of  life,  our  our  grand  centre  of  life,  our 
city  which  we  have  builded  for  city  which  we  have  buildod 
us  to  dwell  in.                                     for  us  to  dwell  in,  is  London ! — 

Matthew    Arnold;     Culture 
and  Anarchy. 


FORCE    IX   SENTEXCES 


307 


3.  In  the  hundred  and  fifty 
years  which  had  elapsed  from 
the  lauding  of  the  Pilgrims  to 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  the 
colonists  had  been  wont  to 
regulate  their  domestic  affairs 
in  their  own  way,  and  to  let 
England  take  care  of  their  for- 
eign affairs  in  return  for  her 
protection. 

4.  Two  or  three  thousand 
logs  are  fastened  together  so 
that  a  raft  is  made,  and  oars  or 
sweejis  to  guide  it  are  hung  on 
each  end,  and  then  the  raft  is 
ready  to  go  down  the  river, 
manned  by  ten  or  twelve  men. 


3.  In  the  hundred  and  fifty 
years  which  had  elapsed  from 
the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  to 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  the 
colonists  had  been  wont  to 
regulate  their  domestic  affairs 
in  their  own  way,  and  in  re- 
turn for  protection  by  Eng- 
land, to  let  her  take  care  of 
their  foreign  affairs. 

4.  The  raft  is  made  by  fast- 
ening together  two  or  three 
thousand  logs.  Then,  when  the 
oars  and  sweeps  to  steer  it  are 
hung  on  one  end,  it  is  ready  for 
the  ten  or  twelve  men  who  are 
to  guide  it  down  the  river. 


137.  Devices  for    Gaining  Periodicity.  —  Though  most 

English  sentences  must  he  loose,  in  numy  cases  it  is  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  to  make  a  loose  sentence  either 
completely  periodic  or  "periodic  in  effect."  Inversion  of 
the  clauses  is  often  sufficient- 


1.  I  went,  though  I  didn't 
want  to  go. 

2.  It  is  combined  with  great 
garrulity  in  all  the  three  cases 
we  have  mentioned. 


1.  Though  I  didn't  want  to 
go,  I  went. 

2.  In  all  the  three  cases  we 
liave  mentioned,  it  is  combined 
with  great  garrulity. 


At  times  the  use  of  correlatives  produces  periodicity: 

1.  He  i-elied  for  his  defence 
both  on  the  truth  and  on  his 
own  recognized  honesty. 

2.  I  gave  credence  neither  to 
his  first  point  nor  to  his  second. 


1.  He  relied  for  his  defence 
on  the  truth,  and  on  his  own 
recognized  honesty. 

2.  I  gave  no  credence  to  his 
first  point,  and  none  to  his 
second. 

3.  Burns  again,  is  distin- 
guished by  the  clearness  of  his 
conceptions,  and  by  their  im- 
petuous force,  in  equal  meas- 
ure. 


3.  Burns,  again,  is  not  more 
distinguished  by  the  clearness 
than  by  the  impetuous  force  of 
his  conceptions. — C  a  R  L  v  L  E  : 
Essay  on  Burns. 


J^OS  COMPOSITIOlf   AND   RfiETORlC 

Substitution  of  a  subordinate  for  a  coordinate  conjunc- 
tion produces  periodicity: 

I  had  no  feeling  about   the  Though  I  had  no  feeling  about 

matter,  but  uiy  mother  had.  the  matter,  my  mother  had. 

The  use  of  a  imrticijual  construction  in  place  of  a  clause 
will  give  periodicity: 

1.  He  quick Ij'  departed,  1.  Being  a  careful  man,  he 
as  he  was  a  careful  man.  quickly  departed. 

2.  You  should  then  resolve  2.  Having,  then,  resolved 
that  you  will  not  waste  reck-  that  you  will  not  waste  reck- 
lessly, but  use  earnestly,  those  lessly,  but  earnestly  use,  these 
early  years  of  jours,  and  you  early  days  of  yours,  remember 
should  remember  that  all  the  that  all  the  duties  of  her  chil- 
duties  of  her  children  to  Eng-  dren  to  England  may  be 
land  may  be  summed  up  in  two  summed  up  in  two  word.s — 
words — industry  and  honor.  industry  and  honor. — Ruskin: 

C'roicn  of  Wild  Olives. 

138.  Emphasis  in  Sentences. — "Nothing,"  says  Steven- 
son, "more  often  disappoints  the  ear  than  a  sentence  sol- 
emnly and  sonorously  prepared  and  weakly  finished." 
A  weak  ending  disappoints  us  because,  unconsciously,  we 
expect  every  bit  of  writing,  be  it  sentence  or  paragraph 
or  whole  composition,  to  observe  the  law  of  climax,  to  go 
from  the  less  to  the  more  important.  If  a  sentence  fails 
to  do  this,  it  may  bo  not  only  weak,  but  even  ludicrous; 
we  smile  when  Ave  hear  that  a  certain  church  was  "built 
for  the  glory  of  God  aiul  to  hold  the  high-school  gradua- 
tion exercises  in."  Such  a  sentence  we  call  unemphatic: 
it  fails  to  put  the  most  important  fact  in  the  most  impor- 
tant jilace. 

In  any  bit  of  composition  the  most  obviously  important 
places  are  the  beginning  and  the  end,  and  in  the  larger 
elements  of  style,  the  paragraph  and  the  whole  composi- 
tion, the  end  is  far  more  important  than  the  beginning. 
In  the  sentence,  the  smallest  independent  nnit  of  discourse, 
the  difference  in  importance  between  these  two  places  is 


FORCE    IN    SENTENCES 


309 


less,  but  the  end, is  still  the  more  important.  Indeed, 
we  may  change  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  by  a  mere  trans- 
position. Fresco tt's  famous  command,  "Trust  in  God, 
and  keep  your  powder  dry,"  does  not  have  the  religious 
tone  it  would  have  if  it  read,  "Keep  your  powder  dry,  and 
trust  in  God."  We  must  strive,  then,  to  make  our  sen- 
tences "end  with  words  that  deserve  distinction."  ^ 

Below  are  several  unemphatic  sentences.  It  will  be 
noted  that  lack  of  emphasis  is  frequently  accompanied  by 
wordiness : 


1.  Very  few  books  that  have 
beeu  written  by  western  schol- 
ars concerning  the  eastern  re- 
ligions have  at  all  accurately 
expressed  the  esoteric  truths  of 
the  systems  they  have  de- 
scribed. 

2.  At  every  wave  the  spray 
flew  around  us  in  a  small 
cloud,  and  the  bump,  bump, 
bump  of  the  boat  as  she 
jmnped  from  wave  to  wave, 
and  the  irregular  rocking  and 
lurching  can  only  be  apiweci- 
ated  by  one  who  has  taken 
such  a  sail. 

3.  Tlie  impressions  of  my 
short  visit  to  Constantinople, 
pleasant  and  at  the  same  time 
sorrowful,  have  remained  in 
my  heart  till  to-day,  and  they 
cause  a  smile  or  a  tear  to  ap- 
pear on  my  face  from  time  to 
time. 


1.  The  esoteric  truths  of  the 
eastern  religions  have  seldom 
found  adequate  expression  in 
books  by  western  scholars. 


2.  At  every  wave  the  spray 
flew  around  us  in  a  cloud.  You 
must  have  taken  such  a  sail  to 
appreciate  the  irregular  rock- 
ing and  •  lurching,  and  the 
bump,  bump,  bump  of  the  boat 
as  she  jumped  from  wave  to 
wave. 

3.  My  short  visit  to  Con- 
stantinople, at  the  same  time 
pleasant  and  sorrowful,  re- 
mains in  my  memory  still,  and 
from  time  to  time  brings  a 
smile  or  a  tear  to  my  face. 


In  this  connection  we  may  note,  first,  that,  though  the 
very  small  number  of  inflectional  endings  in  English  ham- 
pers us  in  transposing  the  elements  of  a  sentence,  we  have 


'  Quoted  from  Professor  Barrett  Weudell's  English  Composition. 


310  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

still  a  considerable  freedom  in  arrangement;  and,  second, 
that  by  shifting  the  whole  or  a  part  of  either  subject  or 
predicate  out  of  its  normal  place  we  give  the  transposed 
words  emphasis;  e.  g. : 

1.  Force  of  character  then,  he  was  entirely  without. 

2.  His  precise  plan  I  can  not  state. 

3.  For  the  things  of    the   spirit  your  man  of    affairs  cares 

little. 

4.  Such  are  the  last  days  of  August,  1792;  days  gloomy, 
disastrous,  and  of  ill-omen.— Carlyle:  French  Rei}oluiion. 

.5.  Violent  indignation  Avith  the  past,  ab-stract  systems  of 
renovation  applied  wholesale,  a  new  doctrine  drawn  up  in  black 
and  white  for  elaborating  down  to  the  very  smallest  details  a 
rational  society  for  the  future— these  are  the  ways  of  Jacobin- 
ism.—Matthew  Arnold:  Culture  and  Anarchy. 

139.  Summary  of  Chapter. — The  force  of  what  we  write 
depends  in  no  small  measure  on  our  skill  in  sentence 
structure.  In  a  good  style  we  find  a  constant  change  in 
the  length  and  the  form  of  the  sentences:  a  skillful  writer 
will  mingle  long  and  short,  loose  and  periodic,  simple  and 
complex  sentences.  Periodic  sentences  he  will,  however, 
use  cautiously,  lest  his  style  seem  artificial.  Finally,  a 
skillful  writer  will  strive  to  make  his  sentences  emphatic 
in  arrangement — to  make  his  statements  begin  and  end 
"with  words  that  deserve  distinction." 

Exercise  XIX 

A.  Why  must  we  mingle  long  and  short  sentences?  To 
what  kinds  of  Avriting  is  the  short  sentence  most  appro- 
priate? The  long  sentence?  Comment  on  the  following 
extracts  and  roAvrite  them : 

1.  The  invitation  to  Burns  to  visit  Edinburgh  c-anie  to  him 
most  opportunely.  He  was  at  this  time  planning  to  leave  Scot- 
land forever.  He  had  not  met  with  the  appreciation  he  wished 
for.  He  realized  that  he  had  done  nmch  to  ruin  both  his  reputa- 
tion and  his  character  since  he  had  left  home.     He  was  discour- 


FORCE    IN"    SENTENCES  311 

aged,  for  these  reasons,  and  was  about  to  seek  a  new  field  for  his 
work,  and  new  associations. 

2.  We  have  learned  of  the  death  of  Henry  Johnson.  He  has 
several  relatives  and  many  friends  in  town  to  mourn  his  loss. 
He  was  56  years  old.  He  belonged  to  the  G.  A.  R.  He  was  a 
soldier  during  the  Rebellion.  He  held  several  offices  in  his 
town.  His  public  duties  were  always  discharged  with  a  prompt- 
ness that  inspired  perfect  confidence. 

3.  Milton  opens  Paradise  Lost  in  the  customary  manner  of  epic 
poems,  by  an  invocation  to  the  Muse.  This  invocation  can  not 
definitely  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  poem.  But  we  may 
say  approximately^  that  it  occupies  the  first  fifty  lines.  Next  we 
have  an  account  of  a  conversation  between  Beelzebub  and  Satan. 
They  discuss  their  present  situation  and  tlieir  plans  for  the 
future.  A  description  of  Satan  lying  outstretched  on  the  burn- 
ing lake  is  next  drawn.  In  this  description  Satan  is  represented 
as  like  almost  every  horrible  image  tliat  the  mind  can  conceive. 
The  last  part  of  the  first  book  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the 
building  of  Pandemonium.  The  picture  of  this  building  in  all 
its  grandeur  is  beautifully  drawn.  Milton  tells  us  that  its 
magnificence  has  never  been  equaled  by  men. 

4.  St.  Benedict  established  a  number  of  monasteries.  The 
principal  one  was  at  Monte  Casino.  The  monks  took  the  triple 
vow  of  perpetual  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  Moreover, 
they  had  to  work.  In  this  respect  they  ditfered  from  the  monks 
of  the  East.  The  Eastern  monks  did  not  work  or  preach.  All 
they  did  was  to  pray,  while  the  Western  monks  did  all 
these  other  things.  The  Western  monks  did  very  prac- 
tical work.  They  built  roads,  bridges,  and  churches.  They 
made  a  pass  over  the  Alps.  They  obtained  grants  of  land  in  the 
forests,  which  they  cleared,  and  planted  crops  and  built  monas- 
teries. From  these  places  they  preached  to  the  neighboring 
tribes.     In  this  way  the  tribes  were  converted  and  civilized. 

5.  I  rise  at  a  little  after  six  o'clock  in  tlie  morning.  After 
having  made  my  toilet  I  have  breakfast.  Then,  if  there  is  any 
time  left  before  seven  o'clock,  I  glance  over  the  editorial  page  of 
the  morning  pajier.  A  condensed  view  of  all  the  important 
news  of  the  day  I  obtain  from  that  sheet. 

At  seven  o'clock  I  start  for  school.  I  usually  take  the  cable- 
car.  Generally  I  employ  my  time  on  the  car  either  in  reading  a 
book  or  in  looking  over  my  lessons.  Sometimes  I  do  not  feel  like 
reading,  and  then  I  sit  and  watch  the  other  people-    The  gar  ia 


312  COMl'OSITIOX    AND    RHETOEIC 

usuallj-  filled  with  high  school  and  college  girls.  Their  ceaseless 
chatter  is  very  amusing  and  serves  to  break  the  monotony  of  tiie 
ride.     I  arrive  at  my  destination  about  half-i^ast  eiglit. 

B.  Define  looseness  and  periodicity.  In  the  following 
extract,  which  sentences  are  loose  and  which  are  periodic? 

Does  the  modern  world  really  gain,  so  far  as  creative  thought 
is  concerned,  by  the  profusion  of  cheap  literature?  It  is  a  ques- 
tion one  often  asks  in  Avatching  the  passengers  on  an  American 
railway.  A  boy  walks  up  and  down  the  car  scattering  news- 
papers and  books  in  paper  covers  right  and  left  as  he  goes. 
Tlie  newspapers  are  glanced  at,  though  probably  most  people 
Jiave  read  several  of  the  day's  papers  already.  The  books  are 
nearly  all  novels.  They  are  not  bad  in  tone,  and  sometimes 
they  give  incidentally  a  superficial  knov/ledge  of  things  outside 
the  personal  experience  of  the  reader;  while  from  their  news- 
papers the  passengers  draw  a  stock  of  information  far  beyond 
that  of  a  European  peasant,  or  even  of  an  average  European 
artizan.  Yet  one  feels  that  this  constant  succession  of  transient 
ideas,  none  of  them  impressively  though  many  of  them  star- 
tlingly  stated,  all  of  them  flitting  swiftly  past  the  mental  sight  as 
tlie  trees  flit  past  the  eyes  wlien  one  looks  out  of  the  car  win- 
dow, is  no  more  favorable  to  the  development  of  serious  intellec- 
tual interests  and  creative  intellectual  power  than  is  the 
limited  knowledge  of  the  European  artizan. — Bryce:  Tlie 
American  CoinmoinreaUh. 

C.  "Where  do  the  following  sentences  cease  to  be  peri- 
odic? Have  they  the  effect  of  complete  periodicity?  Find 
similar  sentences,  long  and  short: 

1.  He  has  undoubtedly  darkened  the  stains  which  previously 
defaced  the  poefs  memor}'. — Leslie  Stephen':  Hours  in  a 
Library. 

2.  Although  the  strictness  of  Puritan  practice  [in  observ- 
ing Sunday]  has  disappeared,  even  in  New  England,  the  Ameri- 
can part  of  the  rural  population,  e.specially  in  the  South,  refrains 
from  amusement  as  well  as  from  work. — Bryce :  The  American 
CuiiDnonirealtli. 

I).  What  is  the  peculiar  value  of  the  loose  sentence?  Of 
the  periodic?  Which  of  the  following  periodic  sentences 
arc  idiomatic  and  effective,  and  which  are  not? 


FORCE    IX    SENTENCES  313 

1.  Immediately  on  Hannibal's  arrival  in  Spain,  because  the 
veterans  believed  that  in  him  Haniilcar,  restored  to  youth,  had 
returned  to  them,  they  admired  him. 

2.  Every  summer,  as  soon  as  school  closed,  to  a  small  lake  in 
the  northern  part  of  Illinois,  the  wliole  family  went. 

3.  An  old  fisherman  said  that,  passing  through  several  lake  j 
and  into  the  Fox  River  and  from  there  into  the  Illinois,  whicli 
flows  into  the  Mississippi,  he,  in  a  rowboat,  without  landing,  had 
reached  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

4.  About  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  body  straight  as  an  arrow 
and  well  proportioned  throughout,  having  massive  and  broad 
shoulders,  straight  black  hair  which  partly  concealed  his  high  and 
noble  forehead,  brown  eyes,  frank  and  pathetic,  a  broad  nose,  a 
firm  mouth,  and  a  square  chin — such  a  man  was  George  Morton. 

5.  And  then  the  solemn  voice  of  the  clergj-man  reading  the 
prayex's,  the  wail  of  the  Gregorian  chants  after  the  jjenitential 
psalms,  the  canticles  sung  to  the  burial  chants  in  sad  minor 
keys,  the  tender  exhoi'tation  of  the  minister,  the  sweet  melody 
of  the  call  to  mourn  the  dead  Christ,  while  all  the  time  t]ie 
shadows  darkened  across  the  cliurch  and  the  cross  on  the  eastern 
window  receded  into  the  distant,  fading  sky,  formed  one  impress- 
ive whole. 

6.  In  examining  the  process  by  which  opinion  is  formed,  we 
cannot  fail  to  note  how  small  a  part  of  the  view  which  the 
average  man  entertains  when  he  goes  to  vote  is  really  of  his  own 
making. — Bryce:  The  American  Covimomcealth. 

7.  To  lie  on  a  bed  of  roses,  and  snarl  at  everybody  who  con- 
tradicts your  theories,  seems  to  imply  rather  testiness  of  temper 
than  strength  of  conviction. — Leslie  Stephen:  Hours  in  a 
Library. 

8.  Yet,  when  we  consider  how  important  it  is  that  legislative 
and  judicial  functions  should  be  kept  distinct,  how  important  it 
is  that  common  fame,  however  strong  and  general,  should  not 
be  received  as  a  legal  proof  of  guilt,  how  important  it  is  to  main- 
tain the  rule  lliat  no  man  shall  be  condemned  to  death  without 
an  opportunity  of  defending  him.self,  and  how  easily  and 
speedily  breaches  in  great  principles,  when  once  made,  are 
widened,  we  shall  probably  be  disposed  to  think  that  the  course 
taken  by  the  Parliament'  was  open  to  some  objection. — 
MacaulaY:  History  of  England. 

1  The  course  refen-ed  to  was  the  passage  of  a  bill  of  attaihder  against 
Monmouth  before  there  was  any  evidence  of  his  treason. 


314  C03IP0SITI0X    AXD   RHETORIC 

9.  "Wliile  one  party  in  tlie  Council  at  Dublin  regarded  James 
merely  as  a  tool  to  be  employed  for  achieving  the  deliverance  of 
Ireland,  another  party  regarded  Ireland  merely  as  a  tool  to  be 
employed  for  effecting  the  restoration  of  James. — ..Iacaulay: 
History  of  England, 

E.  Enumerate  some  of  the  ^vays  of  making  loose  sen- 
tences periodic.  Point  ont  the  defects  in  the  following 
loose  sentences.  Make  the  sentences  wholly  or  in  part 
periodic : 

1.  I  went  to  pick  him  up,  and  he  growled  at  me  and  tried  to 
escape,  but  I  was  too  quick,  and  I  succeeded  in  capturing  him, 
but  only  after  a  short  run,  which  took  me  a  block  away. 

2.  Even  the  birds  avoid  it,  v.-ith  the  exception  of  the  crow, 
whose  cawing,  mingled  with  the  hoarse,  grating,  deep-throated 
bellow  of  the  great  green  marsh  frog,  is  the  only  sound  which 
breaks  a  silence  that  seems  more  betitting  the  judgment  hall  of 
Pluto  than  any  spot  above  ground. 

3.  The  dog's  part  of  the  house  was  the  back  porch,  where  he 
could  be  found  most  of  the  time,  as  he  Avas  not  allowed  to  follow 
wagons  or  buggies. 

4.  I  have  formed  a  new  habit  of  slee]nng  in  a  hammock, 
although  it  took  me  a  long  time  to  get  accustomed  to  it,  as  it 
seemed  so  uunatui-al. 

5.  I  felt  that  I  ought  to  read  at  least  one  book  of  Stevenson's 
to  familiarize  myself  with  his  style;  so  I  began  Will  o"  the  Mill, 
and  before  finishing  it  I  decided  to  read  more  of  his  works,  and 
read  Travels  with  a  Donkey  and  others. 

6.  To  a  lover  of  nature,  there  is  an  intense  fascination  in  The 
Heart  of  the  Ancient  Wood,  yet  of  an  utterlj'  different  sort  from 
that  of  Kipling's  Jungle  Book,  which  this  novel  resembles  in 
some  points,  though  not  in  the  most  essential  ones. 

7.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  by  appointing  the  best  men 
at  the  head,  men  who  will  be  able  to  keep  their  respective  worlv 
in  harmony  with  the  general  plan,  in  order  that  the  masses  may 
keep  in  touch  with  the  movement  and  affairs  may  be  in  better 
condition  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

8.  He  was  a  visionary,  a  genius  in  many  ways,  but  succeed 
ing  in  nothing,  with  an  optimistic  spirit  which  never  alloweil 
him  to  realize  that  he  was  defeated,  and  consequently  lie  nev^c 
■wholly  lost  courage. 


FORCE    IN"    SENTENCES  315 

9.  He  came  to  consult  me  about  everything  he  did  or  contem- 
plated doing,  and  tiiis  was  no  small  tax  on  my  time  and 
patience ;  but  I  gave  both  willingly,  as  I  was  still  faithful  to  my 
interest  in  him. 

10.  The  United  States  has  experienced  the  destructive  pangs 
of  the  double  standard,  and  the  whole  world,  in  truth,  has 
experienced  them. 

11.  Lord  Marmion  met  Clare  and  thought  to  win  her  and 
receive  her  lands,  so  he  fought  with  De  Wilton,  and  it  was  sup- 
posed that  he  had  killed  De  Wilton.  De  Wilton  had  not  been 
killed  in  the  fight,  but  had  been  taken  care  of  by  an  old  man. 

F.  Define  enipljasis.  Ls  emphasis  harder  to  attain  in 
the  sentence  than  in  hirger  bits  of  comj)osition?  Why? 
Show  lioAv  emphasis  depends  on  arrangement.  Criticise 
and  reconstruct  the  following  unemphatic  sentences. 
Note  how  many  of  them  are,  in  your  revised  form,  jseri- 
odic : 

1.  Whenever  Sir  Roger  went  to  church,  the  people  would  all 
wait  until  he  had  walked  up  the  aisle  to  his  pew  and  sat  down, 
before  any  of  them  would  sit  down. 

3.  When  the  two  men  happened  to  visit  the  house,  each  being 
there  at  the  same  time,  trouble  followed,  according  to  the  ver- 
sion that  came  to  the  police. 

3.  Our  college  has  done  this  in  the  past,  and  so  will  she 
always  continue  to  do,  wiien  such  men  as  the  above  thirty  men- 
tioned are  in  training  for  the  conte.st. 

4.  After  the  armies  of  the  Grecians  and  the  Trojans  had 
engaged  in  combat  for  some  time,  fortune  favored  both  sides,  to 
some  extent. 

5.  It  is  always  known  when  an  eruption  is  going  to  take  place, 
by  the  difi'erent  phenomena  that  occur. 

6.  My  son  Mo.'^es  is  a  great  student  of  the  classics,  though  he 
is  still  but  a  young  boy. 

7.  I  received  my  first  impression  of  the  Deer  Park  of  Illinois 
while  on  a  bicycle  tour  through  the  state  with  a  friend  of  the 
same  age  and  enthusiasm  for  wheeling  as  myself. 

8.  There  are  three  criminals  among  the  men  to  one  among  the 
women  in  this  city. 

9.  He  was  the  greatest  of  Roman  liistorians  from  the  point  of 
view  of  literary  excellence,  not  from  that  of  historical  accuracy. 


316  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

10.  Franklin's  humor  was  of  a  very  material  kind— that  is,  it 
consisted  in  a  bare  portrayal  of  facts,  in  most  cases. 

11.  As  I  descended  the  gentle  slope  toward  the  ground  where 
the  neglected  ruin  lay,  the  long,  straight  rows  of  towering 
maples  which  bordered  the  street,  stretched  out  before  me. 

13.  It  is  certainly  to  the  interest  of  the  city  to  have  as  few 
criminals  as  possible  within  her  borders. 

13.  In  fact,  there  is  hardly  a  person  but  has  shown  some 
enthusiasm  over  the  peace  jubilee  in  some  way  or  other. 

14.  At  the  right  sat  a  boy,  who  even  while  seated  gave  the 
idea  of  extraordinary  tallness— or  perhaps  extraordinary  length 
would  express  it  more  correctly. 

G.  How  does  a  departure  from  the  normal  order  of  tlie 
words  in  a  sentence  favor  emphasis?  ]\Iake  as  many  arrange- 
ments as  yon  can  of  each  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Hereafter  any  child  under  the  age  of  fifteen  who  is  found 
on  the  streets  after  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  will  be  dealt 
with  severely,  unless  he  has  some  plausible  excuse  for  his  pres- 
ence on  the  street  after  that  hovir. 

2.  In  order  to  explain  its  working,  it  now  becomes  necessary 
to  presuppose  a  knowledge  of  logarithms  on  the  part  of  the 
reader. 

3.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  within  a  limited  area, 
there  should  be  formed  by  accident  any  great  number  of  geyser 
tubes  in  which  neighboring  veins  of  water  might  find  a  con- 
venient course. 

4.  St.  George's  Hall  is  of  especial  interest  to  Knights  of  the 
Garter,  for  here  all  knights  from  the  time  of  Edward  the  Third 
until  the  present  time  have  their  arms  emblazoned  on  the  i"oof  or 
tlie  walls. 

//.  Read  the  follow! no;  sentences  alond  and  note  how  the 
repetition  of  words  at  the  end  of  consecntive  clauses  and 
sentences  affects  emphasis.     Rewrite  the  sentences : 

1.  Coeducation  is  better  for  the  girls  because  they  become 
more  indei)endent  and  learn  more  of  real  life.  For  this  reason 
they  are  better  equii)ped  to  travel  through  life. 

2.  When  he  readied  his  seat,  lie  casually  glanced  around  to 
see  who  was  absent,  and  as  he  knew  all  his  tenants  by  name, 


FORCE    IN    SENTENCES  317 

and  where  they  sat  in  church,  he  could  quickly  see  who  was 
absent. 

3.  In  the  interval  tall  pines  lift  their  majestic  heads  to  the 
winds,  and  the  yard  beneath  is  strewn  with  the  cones  which  ax-e 
blown  off  by  the  strong  winds. 

4.  In  going  to  visit  at  our  uncle's  house  we  felt  some  com- 
punction at  disturbing  the  domestic  tranquillity  of  his  house. 

/.  Comment  specifically  on  the  seiitence-structiire  of 
the  extract  from  De  Quincey  on  page  359. 


CHAPTER   XX 
THE  STRUCTURE   OF  THE  SINGLE   PARAGRAPH 

140.  Definition  of  the  Paragraph. — The  paragraph,  the 
unit  of  style  midway  between  the  whole  composition  and 
the  sentence,  has  already  been  treated  in  sections  17-22. 
Those  sections  the  student  should  review  before  he  begins 
this  chapter.  There  it  was  said  in  brief  that  a  paragraph 
represents  a  natural  division  of  the  thought  in  a  whole 
composition;  that  very  long  paragraphs  are  obscure,  and 
very  short  ones  fragmentary  and  sensational.  At  this 
point  it  seems  best  to  consider  the  paragraph  as  a 
complete  composition  in  itself;  to  show  what  laws  gov- 
ern it;  how  it  may  fail  and  how  succeed  in  being  clear 
and  forcible.  The  only  definition  immediately  necessary 
is  that  a  paragraph  is  a  collection  of  sentences  all  bearing 
upon  one  easily  discovered  subject.  For  example,  botli 
of  the  following  extracts  are  good  paragraphs.  Each  is 
remarkable  for  definiteness  of  purpose;  every  statement 
reinforces  the  main  idea  so  clearly  that  the  reader  is 
never  at  a  loss  to  know,  not  only  what  each  sentence 
means,  but  also  wluit  the  paragraph  as  a  whole  is 
intended  to  convey : 

1.  The  election  of  Jud<?e  Smith  to  the  position  of  Speaker  of 
our  House  of  Representatives  shows  liow  fruitless  are  the  spas- 
modic outbreaks  of  public  wrath  against  corruption  in  politics. 
How  long  ago  was  it  tliat  the  newspapers  were  confidently  pre- 
dicting that  no  supporter  of  the  Charleton  law  could  ever  again 
aspire  to  a  position  of  public  trust'.'  Tlie  ink  was  scarcely  dry 
upon  their  pre.sses  before  the  election  of  Judge  Smith  .showed 
how  little  the  "practical  politician"  regards  the  wrath  of  such 

318 


THE    STRUCTURE.  OF    THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH      319 

of  his  constituents  as  choose  to  object  to  his  course.  The  coun- 
try representative  rests  secure,  knowing  the  ignorance  of  the 
inhabitants  of  his  district  concerning  matters  in  the  city,  where 
he  finds  his  chief  prey.  The  city  representative  knows  that  the 
gift  of  a  few  hundred  turkeys  or  some  tons  of  coal  to  the  poor  of 
his  constituency  will  insure  his  reelection,  no  matter  what  vicious 
legislation  he  has  favored.  Both  know  that  the  majority  of 
conscientious  voters  either  can  not  or  will  not  spare  the  time  and 
the  money  necessary  to  defeat  them. 

2.  "What  do  you  think  of  our  institutions?"  is  the  question 
addres.sed  to  the  European  traveler  in  the  United  States  by  every 
chance  acquaintance.  The  traveler  finds  the  question  natural, 
for  if  he  be  an  observant  man  his  own  mind  is  full  of  these  insti- 
tutions. But  he  asks  himself  why  it  should  be  in  America  only 
that  he  is  so  interrogated.  In  England  one  does  not  inquire 
from  foreiguers,  nor  even  from  Americans,  their  views  on  the 
English  laws  and  government ;  nor  does  the  Englishman  on  the 
Continent  find  Frenchmen  or  Germans  or  Italians  anxious  to 
have  his  judgment  on  their  politics.  Presently  the  reason  of 
the  difference  appears.  The  institutions  of  tlie  United  States  are 
deemed  by  inhabitants  and  admitted  by  strangers  to  be  a  matter 
of  more  general  interest  than  those  of  tlie  not  less  famous 
nations  of  the  Old  World.  They  are,  or  are  supposed  to  be,  insti- 
tutions of  a  new  type.  They  form,  or  are  supposed  to  form,  a 
symmetrical  whole,  capable  of  being  studied  and  judged  all 
together  more  profitably  than  the  less  perfectly  harmonized 
institutions  of  older  countries.  They  represent  an  experiment 
in  the  rule  of  the  multitude,  tried  on  a  "scale  unprecedentedly 
vast,  and  the  results  of  which  everyone  is  concerned  to  watch. 
And  yet  they  are  something  more  tlian  an  experiment,  for  they 
are  believed  to  disclose  and  display  the  type  of  institutions 
towards  which,  as  by  a  law  of  fate,  the  rest  of  civilized  mankind 
are  forced  to  move,  some  with  swifter,  otliers  with  slower,  but 
all  with  unresting  feet. — Bryce:  The  American  CommonicealHi. 

141.  The  Three  Principles  Governing  the  Single  Par- 
agraph.— These  paragraphs  are  so  clear  that  one  is 
inclined  to  say,  "Paragraphing  is  a  simple  matter;  one 
writes  paragraphs  just  as  he  pleases."  And  the  para- 
graph is,  in  point  of  fact,  much  freer  from  rule  than  the 
smaller    elements    of   composition.     As    soon    as    wo   get 


320  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

beyond  the  sentence  we  are  freed  from  the  trammels  of 
good  use  and  may  choose  and  phice  our  ideas  in  any  way 
we  like,  No  law  of  language  compels  us  to  use  one  fixed 
combination  or  order  of  ideas. 

But  this  freedom  has  its  limitations.  If  we  write  just 
as  whim  dictates,  always  putting  our  ideas  down  in  just 
the  form  and  order  in  which  they  occur  to  us,  we  shall 
not  often  bo  clear.  The  following  paragraph  was  obvi- 
ously written  in  this  haphazard  way,  and  even  very  careful 
scrutiny  of  it  fails  to  disclose  what  the  writer  meant  to  be 
its  leading  idea: 

It  was  not  until  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  diamond 
bscame  the  most  highly  valued  portion  of  a  ring,  and  since  the 
coming  in  of  dianionds,  less  and  less  sentiment  has  attached  to 
rings.  A  diamond  ring,  like  the  old  thumb  ring,  seems  intended 
chiefly  to  display  the  wealth  of  its  owner.  Some  modern  Ger- 
mans, to  say  a  word  more  abovit  the  methods  of  wearing  rings, 
like  the  old  Romans,  wear  a  ring  on  the  second  joint.  But  the 
(clerical  fashion  of  wearing  a  ring  outside  of  the  glove  has  found 
little  favor,  even  with  tliose  most  anxious  for  display.  That  the 
higher  clergy  were  fond  of  rings  was  manifest  by  many  of  those 
in  the  Boardman  collection.  Indeed  the  ruby  and  the  emei'ald 
have  always  been  considered  pontifical  stones.  The  serpent 
ring,  which  some  people  always  wear,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
designs,  found  even  in  Egypt.  And  indeed  the  jeweler  of  to-day 
could  hardly  devise  a  style  that  has  not  been  in  vogue  at  some 
time  in  the  past. 

Clearly,  though  in  writing  paragraphs  we  can  dismiss 
all  care  for  the  laws  of  good  use,  we  can  not  throw  off 
.  consideration  of  the  laws  of  thought.  Our  paragraplis, 
like  our  bentences,  must  observe  the  three  principles 
which  govern  all  intelligent  statement  of  ideas — the  prin- 
ciples of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  A  given  set  of 
ideas  may  be  stated  with  equal  effectiveness  in  a  dozen  dif- 
ferently formed  paragraphs.  But  if  these  ideas  are  well 
stated,  every  one  of  the  dozen  paragraphs  will  keep  to  one 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SIXGLE  PARAGRAPH   3^1 

subject,  will  show  clearly  the  relation  between  the  parts 
of  that  subject,  and  will  arrange  those  parts  in  the  most 
forcible  order  possible. 

142.  Paragraph  Unity  Defined. — To  1je  unified,  a  para- 
graph must  answer  three  requirements :  every  statement  in 
it  must  apply  to  one  main  subject;  every  detail  essential  to 
that  subject,  or  if  it  bo  a  paragraph  in  a  longer  composi- 
tion, that  one  j)articalar  view  of  the  subject,  must  be 
included;  the  central  idea  must  be  obvious.  To  make 
our  statements  follow  one  another  consecutively  is  not 
enough,  for  a  paragraph  may  bo  coherent  and  yet  not 
unified.  Subjects  so  different  as  the  value  of  Arctic 
exploration  and  the  new  type  of  whaling  vessel  can  l^e 
forged  into  an  unbroken  chain  of  statements;  yet  very 
rarely  would  such  a  conglomeration  -of  ideas  make  a 
unified  j^aragraph.  In  the  following  extract,  for  example, 
the  writer  has  joined  statements  which,  though  consecu- 
tive, do  not  all  bear  on  one  topic : 

Among  the  martj^rs  of  the  Revohition  the  name  of  Nathan 
Hale  is  not  so  well  known  as  the  names  of  others,  but  no  one  wlio 
knows  of  him  will  deny  him  a  place  alongside  of  those  jiersons 
who  suffered  for  their  country.  He  had  ambition  for  distinc- 
tion, but  it  was  subservient  to  his  deep  sense  of  dutj'.  For 
duty's  sake  he  would  do  anything.  Once,  wlien  about  to  under- 
take a  task  which  some  thought  dishonorable,  he  said:  "I  wish 
to  be  useful,  and  every  kind  of  service  necessary  for  the  public 
good  becomes  honorable  by  being  necessary."  He  was  merely 
the  captain  of  a  company,  but  he  made  his  company  conspicuous 
for  their  discipline.  Every  duty  entrusted  to  him  he  performed 
in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  manner,  and  so  he  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  his  superiors.  This  confidence  had  also  been  given  him 
in  the  college  from  which  he  had  but  just  graduated  when  war 
broke  out.  In  that  college  his  instructors  had  marked  not  onl}- 
his  sense  of  duty,  but  the  delicacy  and  I'efinemeut  of  his  nature. 
He  had  also  shown  some  promise  as  a  student. 

The  lack  of  unity  here  will  be  evident  if  we  try  to  sum 
up  the  paragraph  in  one   unified  sentence.     The  task  is 


322  COMPOSITION"   AND   RHETORIC 

impossible,  for  the  paragraph  treats  six  or  seven  different 
topics.  Yet  the  illustrative  paragraphs  in  section  l-iO 
could  be  so  summed  up.  The  first  is  adequately  repre- 
sented by  the  statement,  "The  recent  election  of  Judge 
Smith  as  Speaker  of  our  House  of  Representatives  shows 
that  the  wrath  of  the  public  does  not  control  the  'prac- 
tical politician.'  "  The  second  may  be  condensed  as  fol- 
lows: "The  Americans,  more  than  any  other  nation,  are 
interested  in  their  government,  because  that  government 
is  new,  symmetrical,  and  of  the  type  toward  which  all 
governments  are  supposed  to  be  tending. "  In  nine  cases 
out  of  teu  a  unified  paragraph  can  be  separated  into  such 
a  root-statement,  often  in  the  form  of  a  topic-sentence, 
and  a  number  of  branch  statements.^ 

143.  Paragraphs  Too  Long  for  Unity. — A  paragraph 
loses  unity  if  it  includes  matter  not  bearing  on  the 
main  topic  of  the  paragraph.  Sometimes  two  or  more 
related  subjects,  each  one  enough,  if  properly  devel- 
oped, for  a  paragraph,  are  put  together;  sometimes 
a  writer  keeps  in  the  main  to  one  idea,  but,  stirred 
by  something  he  has  said,  rambles  into  a  digression. 
Both  of  these  errors  amount  to  a  shift  of  the  subject  of 
the  paragraph,  and  both  destroy  unity.  Paragraphs,  like 
sentences,  should  stick  to  one  subject. 

Examples  of  these  errors  are  given  below : 

1.  While  many  books  have  been  written  in  praise  of  thi/ 
aesthetic  side  of  Japan,  no  book,  according  to  Mr.  Diosy,  has 
done  justice  to  the  real  greatness  of  the  country.  The  illustra- 
tions in  this  book  are  by  a  native  artist,  and  are,  therefore,  of 
special  interest. 

Here  two  distinct  subjects  are  treated,  both  of  which 
should  receive  more  extended  treatment  in  separate  para- 
graphs. 


»  See  sections  21-22, 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       323 

2.  Royal  jjei'sons  have  a  fair  possibility  of  living  to  a  green  old 
age,  despite  the  activity  of  Anarchists  and  the  uneasiness  which 
the  wearing  of  a  crown  is  supposed  to  imply.  King  Christian  of 
Denmark  has  just  celebrated  his  eighty-fourth  birthday.  He 
has  had  no  serious  troubles  in  recent  years,  to  be  sure;  but  his 
reign  has  not  been  altogether  prosperous.  The  Danes  have  their 
social  and  economic  problems,  like  the  people  of  other  countries; 
and  Denmark  was  badly  beaten  by  Prussia  and  Austria  some 
fort}'  yeaj's  ago,  and  forced  to  surrender  Schleswig-Holstein  to 
the  avaricious  German. 

Here  tlie  v/riter  presents  his  subject — the  longevity  of 
kings  and  queens — in  the  first  sentence,  gives  one  example 
ill  the  second  sentence,  and  then  swings  off  into  other  and 
only  slightly  related  subjects.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 
however,  that  cutting  the  paragraph  in  two  is  a  sufficient 
remedy.  Each  section  must  be  developed  into  a  good 
paragraph. 

3.  It  is  recorded  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  the  famous  Italian 
painter,  that  when  his  brother  monks,  in  admiration  of  his  work 
and  with  the  desire  that  his  name  should  be  held  in  renown,  sug- 
gested that  he  place  his  name  beneath  each  picture,  he  replied : 
"No,  what  has  my  name  to  do  with  it?  I  have  not  been  paint- 
ing for  my  own  honor ;  I  have  been  working  for  the  glory  of 
God."  And  so,  instead  of  following  the  custom  of  the  artists  of 
his  day,  he  simply  wrote  at  the  foot  of  each  picture,  "Pray  for 
the  painter,  pray  for  the  picture.''  For  himself  he  desired  only 
that  he  might  do  his  work  more  worthily.  For  his  pictures,  he 
desired  that  they  might  convey  holy  truth  and  move  men  to  a 
better  life.  It  was  a  matter  of  little  concern  to  him  whether  the 
name  of  him  who  did  the  work  was  remembered  or  forgotten. 
[Too  often  the  beauty  of  Christian  work  is  marred  by  the  spirit 
which  puts  self  in  the  foreground.  We  are  not  content  to  let 
the  work  make  its  own  impression.  Our  name  must  meet  the 
eye.  The  ideal  of  Christian  service  is  that  in  which  the  servant 
loses  sight  and  thought  of  self  in  the  absorbing  desire  to  make 
his  Master  all  in  all.] 

In  this  case  the  bracketed  sentence  does  not  bear 
directly  on  the  main  idea.     The  paragraph  is  an  example 


324  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

of  what  might  be  called  "the  postscript  fault,"  i.  e.,  the 
error  of  adding  to  the  completed  statement  of  the  case  a 
new  train  of  thought,  suggested  by  some  sentence  in  the 
paragraph,  usually  a  sentence  near  the  end. 

Paragraph  unity,  then,  depends  upon  two  things — 
getting  a  definite  subject  for  a  paragraph,  and  sticking  to 
that  subject. 

144.  Paragraphs  Too  Short  for  Unity. — Theoretically, 
a  paragraph,  like  a  sentence,  can  not  be  too  short  for 
unity.  But,  practically,  a  paragraph  which  is  so  short 
that  it  does  not  adequately  develoj)  the  idea  started,  lacks 
unity  in  that  it  does  not  present  the  unit  of  thought  that 
was  in  the  writer's  mind.  We  get  paragraphs  "too  short 
for  unity"  if  we  cut  ujd  into  separate  paragraj^hs  a  number 
of  statements  all  bearing  upon  one  paragraph- topic,  or  if 
we  fail  to  give  the  point  which  binds  the  details  of  the 
paragraph  into  one  body.  In  the  first  extract  below,  the 
thoughts  all  belong  to  one  topic.  In  the  second  extract, 
there  are  properly  only  the  four  paragraphs  indicated  by 
the  brackets.  In  the  third,  the  bracketed  section,  v/hicli 
is  essential  to  the  thought,  Avas  given  by  the  Avriter  in 
another  place. 

1.  Ill  the  middle  of  the  bay  is  a  wliite  sailboat,  rocking 
gently,  as  if  to  tell  us  that  we  should  loose  her  from  her  anchor 
and  go  for  a  sail. 

As  we  are  still  looking  at  the  quiet  scene,  we  hear  shouts,  and 
tumbling  down  the  bank  comes  a  troop  of  children.  They 
])lunge  into  the  boats  and  row  out  to  where  the  yacht  is 
anchored. 

Some  get  in  and  pretend  to  be  sailing,  while  others,  more  ven- 
turesome, hang  over  the  edges  of  their  boats,  pretending  to 
fish. 

The  best  thing  we  can  do  is  to  row  back  to  them,  climb 
into  our  .sailboat,  and,  forgetting  our  delight  in  the  quiet, 
motionless  .scenery,  enjoy  ourselves  with  the  living,  romping 
children. 


1. 


{, 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       325 

f      2.  Again  I  made  bold  to  enter  the  house. 

I       Juana  was  lying  on  the  same  blanket  and  was  in  the 

j  same  spot  where  she  had  died. 

At  her  head  a  couple  of  candles  stvick  into  bottles  were 
burning  fitfully  in  the  dust-laden,  fetid  atmosphere.  A 
dozen  squaws  in  the  room  kept  up  a  constant  wailing. 

At  times  the  wailing  was  a   sort  of   soothing  chant, 
and  at  other  times  some  of  the  squaws  would  set  up  a 
shrill  shriek,  clinch  their  fists  venomously,  and  fill  the  air 
I  with  curses. 

r      Suddenly  the  door   opened,  and  a  squaw  entered  with 
I  an  Indian  basket  filled  witli  earth. 

Louder  and   louder  became  the  wailing,   both   inside 

and  out.     The  squaws  formed  in  a  procession  and  walked 

around  the  corpse,  each  taking  a  handful  of  earth  from 

the  basket  and  scattering  it  over  the  body.     The  earth 

w  was  dry  and  soon  filled  the  air  with  dust. 

"Why  don't  you  bury  Juana?"  I  asked  the  woman  who 
.  six  days  before  had  told  me  that  Juana  was  going  to  die. 

"No  place  for  bury,"  was  the  sullen  answer.     And  all 
the  women  in  the  rooin  began  wailing  and  howling  and 
,    )  cursing. 

I  "Xo  place  for  bury,"  some  of  them  screamed  in  English, 
while  others  kept  uj)  the  incoherent  wailing  which 
I  deafened  my  tired  ears. 
3.  The  Japanese  newspapers  record  the  invention  by  a  native 
of  a  machine  for  x-olling  tea.  The  great  cost  of  the  production 
of  tea  lies  in  the  labor.  Each  individual  leaf  must  be  plucked 
from  tlie  plant  and  handled  with  the  fingers  several  times  beforo 
it  can  be  sent  to  market.  Up  to  this  time  the  industry  of  tea- 
raising  has  been  unprofitable  without  tlie  cheap  labor  and  the 
deft  fingers  of  women,  and  vip  to  this  time  tlie  women  in  Japan 
have  been  paid  from  four  to  eight  cents  a  day  for  twelve  hours' 
labor.  But  the  rapid  rise  of  wages  in  Japan  has  made  this  rate 
of  payment  no  longer  possible.  Without  some  unexpected 
change,  it  seemed  that  the  tea-industry  of  Japan  must  die.  [Now 
the  new  machine  can  manufacture  nearly  a  ton  of  tea  in  twent)- 
four  hours,  with  the  labor  of  one  attendant — the  equivalent  of 
tlie  work  of  one  hundred  women.  Hence  this  invention  prom- 
ises to  be  as  important  to  Japan  as  the  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin  was  to  tlie  South.  It  will  save  an  industiy  apparently 
doomed.  ] 


326  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Aim  to  get  into  every  paragraph  enough  to  make  the 
subject,  or  the  view  of  the  subject  which  you  are  then 
presenting,  compk'te  in  itself. 

145.  Paragraph-Coherence  Defined.— A  paragraph  will 
be  obscure,  even  though  all  the  statements  given  arc 
parts  of  one  subject,  unless  these  statements  follow  one 
another  in  an  unmistakably  logical  order.  That  is,  the 
paragraph,  like  the  sentence,  must  be  coherent.  In  the 
j)aragraph,  as  in  the  sentence,  coherence  depends  upon 
two  things:  the  juxtaj^sition  of  the  parts  related  in 
thought,  and  the  use  of  connectives.  A  separate  section 
will  be  devoted  to  each  of  these  subjects. 

146.  Incoherence  from  Faulty  Arrangement. — Incoher- 
ence from  faulty  arrangement  is  in  almost  every  case  a 
violation  of  the  principle  that  things  related  in  thought 
should  be  kept  together;  things  distinct  in  thought,  apart. 
This  principle  is  seldom  adequately  observed  in  the  orig- 
inal draft  of  a  paragraph.  Before  one  sets  pen  to  paper, 
he  should,  in  a  measure,  have  thought  out  the  exact  order 
in  which  he  means  to  put  down  his  ideas;  but  when  the 
first  draft  is  done,  he  has  the  further  task  of  rearranging 
his  details  here  ami  there,  until  every  sentence  in  every 
paragraph  grows  out  of  what  precedes  and  leads  up  to 
what  follows.  Xote  the  gain  that  comes  from  the  changes 
of  arrangement  in  the  examples  below: 

1.   I  was  born  away  out  in  1.  I  was  born  out  in  the  very 

the  heart  of  the  Rockies.     My  heart  of  tlie  Rockies.      I  can 

father  had  come  up  into  this  well  remember  our  two-roomed 

wild  Montana  country,  bring-  log   cabin,    the    big    fireplace, 

ing  my  mother,  to  prosi^ect  for  with  tlie  smoked  lianis  dangling 

gold.     Reports  had  been  spread  from  the  sooty  rafters,  and  the 

tliat  the  gold  lay  in  the  creek  stories  that  were  told  by  the 

bottoms,  and  all  one  had  to  do  fireside  of  the  cruelties  of  the 

was  to  pick  it  up;    but  such  wild  Indians,  who  w^ere  often 

was  not  the  case,  as  we  soon  said  to  be  approaching.      Wo 

learned.     I  well  remember  our  had  been  brougiit  to  this  wild 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       327 


t^vo-roomed  log  cabin,  the 
big  fireplace,  and  the  smoked 
liams  hanging  from  the  sooty 
rafters.  Stories  were  circu- 
lated of  the  cruelty  of  the  wild 
Indians  and  of  their  approach. 
3.  A  dramatic  incident  was 
the  fall  of  a  fireman,  Morris 
Wilson,  who  went  up  the  roof 
on  a  ladder  to  rescue  children. 
Just  as  he  reached  the  top  a 
stream  of  water  was  turned  on 
him.  He  reached  forachild,and 
the  latter  jumped  for  his  arms. 
Suddenly  the  fireman  lost  his 
hold  on  the  ladder  and  fell  with 
the  child  to  the  ground.  The 
child  was  unhurt,  but  Wilson 
was  so  seriously  injured  that 
he  may  die.  The  roof  was 
crowded  with  children,  who 
liad  escaped  through  the  scut- 
tle from  the  upper  rooms,  and 
who  were  being  taken  down 
by  the  firemen. 


Montana  country  because  my 
father  had  heard  that  gold  lay 
in  the  creek  bottoms,  and  that 
all  one  had  to  do  was  to  pick  it 
up.     But  it  was  a  false  report. 

2.  During  the  fire  an  unfoi'- 
tunate  accident  occurred  to 
one  of  the  firemen  —  Morris 
Wilson.  The  roof  was  crowded 
with  children  who  had  escaped 
thi-ough  the  scuttle  from  the 
upper  rooms.  Several  of  the 
firemen,  among  them  Wilson, 
were  taking  them  down.  Wil- 
son had  just  reached  the  top 
of  the  ladder  and  had  caught  a 
child  who  had  jumped  for  his 
arms,  when  a  stream  of  water 
was  turned  on  him.  He  lost 
his  hold  and  fell  with  the  child 
to  the  ground.  The  child  was 
unhurt,  but  Wilson  was  so 
seriously  injured  that  he  may 
die. 


147.  Connectives  an  Aid  to  Coherence. — Connectives, 
which  link  the  sentences  together  and  show  the  reader 
whence  he  has  come  and  whither  he  is  going,  are  of  even 
greater  importance  in  the  paragraph  than  in  the  sentence. 
Few  readers  realize  the  nnmher  of  mere  link -words  pres- 
ent in  any  well-written  paragraph.  Among  these  words, 
which  Coleridge  called  "the  hooks  and  eyes"  of  style, 
are:  "for,"  "indeed,"  "hut,"  "and,"  "now,"  "then," 
"yet,"  "moreover,"  "hence,"  "while,"  "thongh," 
"accordingly,"  "therefore,"  "on  the  one  side,"  "on  the 
other  side,"  "on  the  contrary."  Yet  these  conjunctions 
and  conjunctive  adverbs  form  only  a  small  p'lrt  of  the 
body  of  connectives.     Many  other  words  and  phrases  nob 


32S  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

formnlly  chissed  as  connectives  have  no  other  office  than 
that  of  linking  together  the  thoughts  of  the  paragraph. 
In  the  following  extracts  all  the  words  which  serve  in 
any  Avay  as  connectives  are  italicized : 

1.  There  cannot  be  a  stronger  instance  than  the  fate  of  Dry- 
den's  last  production,  the  "Fables."  Tliat  volume  was  published 
Avhen  he  was  universally  admitted  to  be  the  chief  of  living 
English  poets. — Macaulay:  Histonj  of  England. 

2.  In  the  effort  to  bring  within  reasonable  compass  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  facts  of  to-day,  I  have  had  to  resist  another  tempta- 
tion, that  of  straj'ing  off  into  history.  TJie  temptation  has  been 
strong,  for  .  .  . — Bryce:  The  American  Commonwealth. 

3.  Sir,  I  can  perceive  by  their  manner,  that  some  gentlemen 
object  to  the  latitude  of  this  description;  because  in  the  south- 
ern colonies  the  Church  of  England  forms  a  lax'ge  body,  and  has 
a  regular  establishment.  It  is  certainly  true.  There  is,  however, 
a  circum.stance  attending  these  colonies,  which,  in  my  opinion, 
fully  counterbalances  this  difference,  and  makes  the  spirit  of 
liberty  still  more  high  and  haughty  than  in  those  to  the  north- 
ward. It  is,  that  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  they  have  a  vast 
multitude  of  slaves.  Where  this  is  the  case  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  those  who  are  free,  are  by  far  the  most  proud  and  jealous 
of  their  freedom.  Freedom  is  to  them  not  only  an  enjoyment, 
but  a  kind  of  r^nk  and  privilege. — Burke:  Speech  on  Concilia- 
tion with  America. 

Failure  to  use  connectives  frequently  results  in  obscu- 
rity. Compare  the  incoherent  paragraphs  on  the  left 
below  with  the  coherent  ones  on  the  right. 

1.  At  the  high  school  gradu-  1.  At  the  high  school  gradu- 
ating exercises  held  in  this  city  ating  exercises  held  in  this 
last  year  a  peculiar  fact  was  city  last  year,  a  peculiar  fact 
noticeable.  For  every  boy  in  was  noticeable.  For  every  boy 
the  class  there  were  three  in  the  class  there  were  three 
girls.  It  is  hard  to  account  for  girls.  A  .situation  of  this 
this.  Arc  immature  men  kind  is  hard  to  account  for, 
forced  into  business?  Are  girls  and  leads  one  to  query:  "Is 
more  blest  witii  educational  it  true  that  immature  men 
advantages?  One  ignorant  of  are  often  forced  into  business, 
the    true    (^ause    miglit    say,  and  are  girls  more  blest  witb 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       329 


"Yes."  The  rise  of  the  man-  educational  advantages  than 
ual  ti'aining  school  seems  to  boys?"  At  first  thought,  one 
have  caused  the  anomaly.  ignorant  of    the    true    causes 

might  answer,  "Yes."  On 
second  thought,  however,  a 
more  probable  explanation  pre- 
sents itself  in  the  rise  of  the 
manual  training  schools. 

2.  Was  Socrates  justly  con- 
demned? The  question  is  an 
old  one — perhaps  as  old  as  the 
trial  itself.  For  Socrates  was 
condemned  by  only  a  small 
majority,  and,  if  common  re- 
port is  to  be  believed,  his  ac- 
cusers were  killed  soon  after 
the  trial.  Evidently,  even 
among  the  Athenians  of  399 
B.  c,  there  was  considerable 
doubt  as  to  his  guilt.  And,  as 
time  went  on,  and  Plato's 
Apology  and  the  writings  of 
Xenophon  further  aided  his 
cause,  the  question  became 
more  and  more  a  moot-point. 

148.  Similarity  of  Sentence-Structure  Sometimes  an  Aid 
to  Coherence. — Often,  when  the  writer  desires  to  keep  one 
idea  or  one  person  before  the  reader's  eyes  for  some  time, 
the  skillful  repetition  of  a  pronoun  or  a  proper  name,  and 
a  rough  similarity  in  the  form  and  cadence  of  the  sen- 
tences, will  increase  the  coherence;  e.  g.  : 

It  was  difficult  for  Englishmen  to  believe  that  any  real  danger 
to  liberty  could  come  from  an  idler  and  a  voluptuary 
such  as  Charles  tlie  Second.  But  in  the  very  difficulty  of  believ- 
ing this  lay  half  the  King's  strength.  He  had  in  fact  no  taste 
whatever  for  the  despotism  of  the  Stuarts  who  had  gone  before 
him.  His  shrewdness  laughed  his  grandfather's  theory  of 
Divine  Right  down  the  wind,  while  his  indolence  made  such  a 
personal  administration  as  that  which  his  father  delighted  in 
burthensome  to  him.     He  was  too  humorous  a  man  to  care  for 


2.  Was  Socrates  justly  con- 
demned? Socrates  was  con- 
victed by  a  small  majority. 
Even  among  the  Athenians  of 
that  daj^  there  was  consider- 
able doubt  of  liis  guilt.  It  is 
said  that  after  the  trial  his  ac- 
cusers were  killed.  Plato's 
Apology  and  Xenophon's 
writings  further  aided  his 
cause,  until  the  question  be- 
came more  and  more  a  moot- 
point. 


330  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

the  pomp  and  show  of  power,  and  too  good-natured  a  man  to 
play  the  tyrant.  But  he  believed  as  firmly  as  his  father  or  his 
grandfather  had  believed  in  the  older  prerogatives  of  the  Crown ; 
and,  like  them,  he  looked  on  Parliaments  with  suspicion  and 
jealousy.  "He  told  Lord  Essex,"  Burnet  says,  "that  he  did  not 
wish  to  be  like  a  Grand  Signior,  with  some  mutes  about  him, 
and  bags  of  bow-strings  to  strangle  men;  but  he  did  not  think 
that  he  was  a  king  so  long  as  a  company  of  fellows  were  looking 
into  his  actions,  and  examining  his  ministers  as  well  as  his 
accounts."  "A  king,"  he  thought,  "who  might  be  checked, 
and  have  his  ministers  called  to  an  account,  was  but  a  king  in 
name." — Green :  Short  History  of  the  English  People. 

149.  Emphasis  in  Paragraphs. — Emphasis  is  the  tliird 
noticeable  attribute  of  a  good  paragraph.  In  a  forcible  par- 
agraph, the  arrangement  brings  the  most  prominent  ideas 
into  the  most  prominent  places;  that  is,  the  beginning  or 
the  end.  Very  often  a  paragraph  can  be  given  emphasis 
by  stating  the  subject  at  the  beginning  and  making  the 
rest  of  the  paragraph  a  series  of  examples  or  illustrations 
ending  with  a  summing-up.  Now  and  then  emphasis  is 
secured  by  varying  the  process;  i.  e.,  by  starting  with 
the  details  and  announcing  the  leading  thought  in  the 
last  sentences.  To  begin  or  end  with  unimportant  details, 
or  to  go  from  the  more  to  the  less  important  idea,  destroys 
emphasis. 

In  the  first  example  below,  emphasis  is  secured  by  the 
first  of  the  two  methods  referred  to  above;  in  the  second, 
by  the  second  method.  The  two  remaining  paragraphs 
show  a  lack  of  emphasis.  In  the  first,  the  writer  allows 
the  paragraph  to  end  with  comparatively  unimportant 
details;  in  the  second,  the  writer  puts  his  ideas  forward 
in  the  Avrong  order. 

1.  It  is  pleasant  to  notice  that  the  general  nervousness  and 
vague  fear  of  last  winter  in  reference  to  the  unemployed  have 
now  so  largely  given  way  to  a  season  of  reflection  and  analy.sis. 
It  is  no  longer  enough  for  a  set  of  men  to  exhibit  themselves  as 
un  army  of  the  unemployed  to  inspire  sympathy  or  terror  in  the 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       331 

staid  citizen  and  to  make  him  feel  tliat  Congress  or  the  State  or 
citj^  government  should  "do  something."  The  time  has  come 
to  cross-examine  the  unemployed,  to  ask  tiiem  how  they  came  into 
their  present  evil  estate,  what  work  they  ever  did  and  how 
they  came  to  lose  their  jobs,  and  what  work  they  could  or  would 
do  now  if  it  were  offered  them.  Such  questioning  is  the  surest 
way  to  rid  ourselves  of  the  notion  that  there  is  anything  new  or 
particularly  threatening  about  the  matter  as  it  presents  itself 
to-day,  for  it  is  simply  the  old  question  over  again  of  what  society 
is  to  do  with  the  incapable  and  unwilling  who  cannot,  or  will 
not,  earn  an  honest  living.  —  The  Nation. 

2.  Ariosto  tells  a  pretty  story  of  a  fairy,  who,  by  some  mys- 
terious law  of  her  nature,  was  condemned  to  appear  at  certain 
seasons  in  the  form  of  a  foul  and  poisonous  snake.  Those  who 
injured  her  during  the  period  of  her  disguise  were  forever 
excluded  from  participation  in  the  blessings  which  she  bestowed. 
But  to  those  who,  in  si^ite  of  her  loathsome  aspect,  pitied  and 
protected  her,  she  afterwards  revealed  herself  in  the  beautiful 
and  celestial  form  which  was  natural  to  her,  accompanied  their 
steps,  granted  all  their  wishes,  filled  their  houses  with  wealth, 
made  them  hajipy  in  love  and  victorious  in  war.  Such  a  spirit 
is  Liberty.  At  times  she  takes  the  form  of  a  hateful  reptile. 
She  grovels,  she  hisses,  she  stings.  But  woe  to  those  who  in 
disgust  shall  venture  to  crush  her !  And  happy  are  those  who, 
having  dared  to  receive  her  in  her  degraded  and  frightful  shape, 
shall  at  length  be  rewarded  by  her  in  the  time  of  her  beauty  and 
her  glory ! — Macaulay  :  Essay  on  Milton. 

3.  Little  do  we  realize,  as  we  perform  our  routine  work, 
what  a  multitude  of  people  are  bending  under  londs  of  freight. 
More  than  a  million  men  and  women  are  employed  on  the  rail- 
ways alone,  while  the  great  engines  Avend  their  way,  screaming 
and  roaring,  over  the  vast  lands  of  the  world.  Tlien  there  are 
the  ocean  steamers,  each  with  its  little  army  of  men,  which 
transport  the  jjroducts  of  one  country  to  another.  Finally, 
there  are  the  dray  horses,  the  mules,  the  camels,  and  the  ele- 
phants, all  of  which  keep  the  freight  moving. 

4.  There  were  three  points  in  the  story  which  deserved  favor- 
able comment.  The  way  in  which  the  hero  and  lieroine  of  the 
story  meet  and  are  finally  reconciled  to  each  otlier  forms  the 
unique  characteristic  of  the  plot.  So  well  has  Stevenson  pic- 
tured the  important  qualities  of  their  characters  that  we  feel 
well  acquainted  with  both.     There  are  also  many  good  descrip- 


332  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

fcive  passages   connected  with  the   characters  themselves,  and 
also  with  the  house  and  its  furnishings. 

150.  Summary  of  Chapter. —A  paragraph  should  be  a 
collection  of  sentences  treating  one  subject,  or  one  view  of 
a  subject.  A  Ay  ell-constructed  paragraph  has  unity,  co- 
herence, and  emphasis.  It  has  unity  when  it  contains  no 
matter  foreign  to  tiae  main  subject,  and  contains  all  the 
matter  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject,  or  the 
special  side  of  the  subject,  it  presents.  Unified  paragraphs 
can  generally  be  summed  up  in  a  unified  sentence.  A  para- 
graph has  coherence  when  the  relation  of  every  sentence 
in  it  to  every  other  sentence,  and  to  the  paragraph  as  a 
whole,  is  clear.  To  gai>n  coherence,  the  different  sentences 
must  be  arranged  in  logically  consecutive  order,  and  con- 
nectives must  be  freely  used,  A  paragraph  has  emphasis 
when  the  important  thoughts  are  put  in  the  important 
places,  that  is,  either  at  the  bcginuing  or  the  end. 

Exercise  XX 

A.  Write  a  paragraph  defining  the  term  "paragraph"; 
another,  telling  what  laws  govern  paragraph-structure. 

/>.  Define  paragraph-unity.  What  is  the  test  of  unity 
iu  the  paragraph?     How  may  unity  be  destroyed? 

C.  Find  in  the  newspapers  two  or  three  paragraplis 
which  lack  unity;  criticise  and  rewrite  them. 

J).  The  following  paragraphs  lack  unity.  Point  on^ 
the  faults  in  each.     Eewrite  those  which  you  can  unify. 

1.  Charlotte  Cushman  loved  fame,  worshiped  money,  and 
was  devoted  to  her  art.  That  she  was  a  great  artist  has  never 
been  questioned.  In  private  life,  she  was  a  charming  woman. 
The  moment  she  entered  the  theatre,  either  at  rehearsal  or  at  a 
performance,  her  whole  soul  was  wrapped  up  in  her  art.  If  she 
was  somewhat  miserly  witli  money  in  general,  she  was  extrava- 
gant in  lii'r  assistance  and  eni-ouragement  to  those  in  whom  she 
saw  genius  and  talent.     Of  Charlotte  Cushmau's  greatness  in 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH        333 

some  parts  there  is  no  question.  "  Meg  Merrilies,  Lady  Macbeth, 
and  Queen  Catherine  were  her  best  parts.  At  rehearsals  she 
was  ever  kind  and  tender,  never  tiring  in  teaching  those  who 
were  lacking  in  experience  or  were  suffering  from  stage  fright. 

2.  One  can  not  lielp  being  shocked  to  see  how  the  New 
England  Sabbath,  with  all  its  carefully  guarded  restrictions,  its 
devout  observances,  its  reverence  and  piety,  is  passing  away. 
It  was  a  holy  day,  and  ui^on  it  men  did  holy  deeds  and  tliought 
on  holy  things.  To-day  we  see  young  men  who  have  no  other 
day  for  out-of-door  recreation  starting  Sunday  morning  on  their 
bicj'cles  for  the '  golf-links  or  the  woods.  How  fortvinate  they 
are  to  have  one  day  in  the  week,  if  not  for  religion,  at  least  for 
rest  and  recreation ! 

3.  In  a  moment  a  gong  sounded  and  the  tramp  of  footsteps 
came  to  my  ears.     The  inmates  slowly  approached. 

The  men  entered  first.  Some  were  large  and  erect,  their  ruddy 
faces  showing  the  effect  of  working  on  the  poorhouse  farm. 
Others  were  old  and  bent,  the  sorrowful,  forlorn  look  on  their 
faces  showing  the  wretched,  hopeless  life  they  led  there. 

They  all  sat  down  in  their  places  and  quietly  waited  for  the  . 
service  to  begin.     The  women  were  neatly  dressed,  some  wear- 
ing a  little  bit  of  finery  carefully  saved,  while  others  evidently 
did  not  care  much  for  their  appearance. 

When  the  children  came  in,  all  turned  around  to  smile  a  look 
of  recognition  or  love. 

4  There  is  need  of  more  stringent  quarantine  regulations  in 
the  harbor  of  Wharton.  At  this  season  of  tlie  year  many  ves- 
sels come  into  this  port  from  foreign  countries,  and  there  is 
always  danger  that  they  will  bring  with  them  infectious  or  con- 
tagious -diseases. 

At  present  the  health  authorities  keep  a  sentinel  at  Watson's 
Point.  His  duty,  and  he  performs  it  faithfully,  is  to  board 
incoming  vessels  and  inquire  as  to  the  physical  condition  of 
those  on  board  and  as  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  vessel 
itself.  As  we  understand  it,  this  sentinel  is  simply  a  lay 
inspector,  who  has  had  no  special  preparation  for  the  work  he  is 
expected  to  do.  He  is  not  a  physician  and  has  only  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  average  layman  regarding  dangerous  diseases. 

This  is  not  as  it  should  be.  If  arriving  vessels  are  to  be  exam- 
ined, it  should  be  by  a  tlioroughly  competent  medical  official.  It 
is  unwise  to  take  any  chance  of  the  introduction  of  malignant 
fevers,  smallpox,  or  otlier  maladies  of  that  class. 


334  COMPOSITION    AJfD    RHETORIC 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  Courier  to  find  fault  with  what 
has  been  or  what  is  being  done.  Tlie  doctors  directing  the  oper- 
ation of  the  existing  quarantine  regulations  are  doing  all  that  is 
possible  with  the  means  at  their  disposal.  What  is  needed  is 
something  additional— a  physician  to  go  aboard  ships  coming  in 
at  Watson's  Point,  rather  than  when  they  are  docked,  and  to 
make  a  careful  inspection  of  them. 

Too  much  care  can  not  be  exercised  to  prevent  the  presence  of 
diseases  that  may  become  epidemic. 

5.  But  Peter's  diligence  and  thoroughness,  his  fearlessness  in 
going  to  the  root  of  a  matter,  and  his  willingness  to  take  upon 
himself  great  labor,  bore  their  legitimate  fruit.  His  govern- 
ment was,  all  things  con.sidered,  successful.  And  his  ability  to 
carry  on  a  government  so  vast  as  that  of  Russia  won  for  hiui 
love  and  honor  from  all.  His  last  days  were  spent  in  beautifying 
the  capital  and  furtliering  the  cause  of  education. 

6.  Addison's  humor  is  quaint,  but  always  true  humor — pleas- 
ant and  kindly,  never  cutting  or  stinging.  I  believe  it  is  Johnson 
who  says,  "He  who  would  write  pure  English  must  spend  his 
days  and  nights  with  Addison. "  Addison  wrote  a  great  many 
articles  for  the  Spectator  and  the  Tatler.  In  fact  nearly  all  his 
writings  appeared  in  those  magazines.  Nowhere  in  the  English 
language  (poetry  excepted)  is  to  be  found  a  story  more  charming 
than  Addison's  pictures  of  the  entire  innocence,  simplicity,  and 
kind-heartedness  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverlcy  Nor  is  Sir  Roger  an 
ideal  personage  created  by  the  author's  genius,  for  there  are  such 
people  even  now,  though,  of  course,  not  many. 

7.  I  left  my  home  in  Canada  on  the  29th  of  May,  1897,  for  the 
purpose  of  seeking  my  fortune  in  the  West.  All  through  my 
journey  I  had  but  one  object ;  namely,  to  reach  Chicago. 

As  I  walked  from  the  train  to  my  hotel  I  compared  what  I 
could  see  of  the  city  with  the  city  I  had  left. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  two  cities,  a  difference  whi;-h 
was  plainly  to  be  seen  in  a  very  short  time.  Passing  along  State 
street,  I  was  struck  by  the  number  of  people,  some  going  one 
way,  some  another.  In  a  few  minutes  more  I  was  in  the  Palmer 
House,  where  my  friends  awaited  me.  There  I  had  a  very 
line  dinner, 

The.se  were  the  oniy  events  wortliy  of  mention,  for  being  very 
tired,  I  went  to  bed  early, 

8.  Probably  one  of  tlie  mo.st  interesting  discoveries  of  mod- 
ern times  is  that  of  an  island  in  the  Pacilic  ocean.     This  islaoid 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   THE   SINGLE    PARAGRAPH       335 

is  sometimes  known  under  the  name  of  "Dawson's  Island.""  It 
is  on  no  map,  but  is  located  about  twenty-three  liundred  miles 
from  the  coast  of  South  America,  and  it  is  almost  directly  south 
of  Lower  California.  The  discovei-y  is  considered  by  many  to 
be  next  in  interest  to  that  of  the  revealing  of  the  walls  of 
ancient  Troy.  The  massive  ruins  of  Troy  in  all  stages  of  decay 
hide  untold  mysteries  of  an  aboriginal  race,  who  are  supposed 
to  have  been  highly  civilized.  This  fact  is  shown  from  their 
statuary  and  architectural  remains.  A  German  geographer  has 
visited  this  island,  and  tells  of  its  wonderful  features  of  inter- 
est. The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  about  ten  miles  long- 
by  five  miles  wide.  On  one  side,  the  shore  is  banked  with  vol- 
canoes, and  in  tha  center  of  a  vast  plain  which  lies  beyond  is  a 
volcano  so  jierfectly  shaj^ed  that  it  might  have  been  modeled  by 
the  hand  of  man.  These  immense  volcanoes  have  been  extinct 
for  many  years.  In  fact  the  natives  have  never  seen  an 
eruption. 

9.  Tliere  would  be  considerable  surprise  expressed  among 
orthodox  church-goers  if  the  Conception  of  Nirvana  was  alluded 
to  as  a  distinctly  Christian  doctrine.  Yet  in  a  deep  sense,  such 
is  actually  the  case.  Buddha  taught  the  attainment  of  Nirvana, 
or  the  realization  of  oneness  with  the  Universal  Life,  as  the 
aim  and  summit  of  human  life.  Jesus  emphatically  told  his 
disciples  that  "I  and  the  Father  are  one," — "He  in  me,  and  I  in 
you," — "The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  within  you."  Both  are 
expressions  of  the  same  fundamental  idea,  the  central  principle 
of  all  religions — that  God  is  immanent,  the  all-pervading  Spirit 
of  Life ;  that  all  the  strength,  wisdom,  and  love  of  humanity  are 
derived  from  the  Infinite  Father,  the  ultimate  source  of  the 
universe.  The  supreme  duty  of  man  is  to  recognize  and  act 
upon  this  sublime  principle. 

10.  The  pretext  for  Macaulay's  essay  on  Addison  is  Miss 
Aikin's  essay  on  Addison,  and  in  part  he  criticises  her  interjire- 
tation  of  Addison's  life  as  she  takes  it  from  his  writings.  Addi- 
son's father  was  a  minister,  and  not  a  very  successful  man,  but 
he  gave  his  son  Joseph  a  good  education.  Joseph  was  very  pre- 
cocious and  entered  Queen"s  College  at  the  age  of  fifteen  with 
a  good  amount  of  classical  learning.  He  was  a  good  Latin 
scholar  and  a  good  Latin  poet.  He  was  very  well  versed  in  the 
Latin  poets,  especially  the  early  ones.  On  graduating  from  col- 
lege with  a  fellowship  he  was  offered  a  position  as  a  diplomat 

11.  In  this  age  of  great  reforms,  is  it  not  time  some  change 


336  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

was  made  in  our  newspapers?  After  reading  a  Sunday  issue 
especially,  it  is  appalling  to  think  tliat  to  thousands — comprising 
not  only  the  poorer  classes,  who  can  afford  nothing  better,  but 
also  the  great  class  of  men  and  women  who,  in  the  stress  of 
American  business  life,  have  little  time  for  anything  else — the 
press  is  the  chief  source  of  education.  For  sensational  and 
romantic  stories  of  a  low  order  are  not  conducive  to  the  best 
literary  taste;  neither  are  murder  and  suicide  items  of  a  refining 
nature.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  two  pages  devoted  to  society 
news,  swelled  by  minute  descriptions  of  the  gowns  and  jewels 
worn  at  the  latest  so-called  "functions."'  Then  there  are,  on  an 
average,  fromtlu-ee  columns  to  two  pages  of  "sharp  sayings"  and 
"jxnnted  paragraphs,''  which,  if  not  actually^vulgar,  are  at  least 
a  poor  kind  of  humor.  Even  when  all  this  exti'aneous  luatter 
has  been  cut  out,  there  is  still  room  for  improvement.  For 
example,  the  glaring,  sensational  headlines,  and  the  faults  of 
grammar  and  diction  in  the  editorials,  not  to  mention  slang, 
should  be  expurgated.  Our  journals  should  be  written  in  cor- 
rect English.  In  the  fact  that  there  is  a  constantly  increasing 
demand  for  college  men  in  journalism  lies  tlie  hope  that 
through  their  influence  the  character  of  the  press  will  be  greatly 
impi'oved. 

E.  Define  paragraph-coherence.  On  what  two  factors 
does  it  dej)eiid?  AVh}^  is  it  necessary  to  use  connectives 
more  freely  in  the  paragrapli  than  in  the  sentence? 

F.  Find  in  the  newspapers  three  paragraplis  Avhieli 
lack  coherence,  criticise  them  specifically,  and  rewrite 
them. 

G.  Find  in  yonr  reading  paragraphs  which  are  notahly 
coherent,  and  show  how  coherence  has  been  attained. 
Point  out,  in  the  following  paragraphs,  the  devices  by 
which  the  sequence  of  thought  is  made  obvion«. 

In  a  poet  of  such  magnitude,  how  shall  we  explain  his  scanti- 
ness of  production?  Shall  we  explain  it  by  saying  that  to  make 
of  Gray  a  poet  of  this  magnitude  is  absurd;  that  his  genius  and 
resources  were  small,  and  that  his  production,  therefore,  was 
small  also,  but  that  the  popularity  of  a  single  piece,  tlie  Elegy, 
— a  popularity  ihie  in  great  measure  to  t!ie  subject, — created  for 
Gray  a  reputation  to  which  he  has  really  no  right?    He  himself 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SINGLE  PARAGRAPH   :V-]7 

was  not  deceived  by  the  favor  shown  to  the  Elcgij.  '•Graj'  told 
me  with  a  good  deal  of  acrimony,"  writes  Dr.  Gregorj',  "that 
the  Elegy  owed  its  popularity  entirely-  to  the  subject,  and  that 
the  public  would  have  received  it  as  well  if  it  had  been  written 
in  prose."  This  is  too  much  to  say;  the  Elegy  is  a  beautiful 
poem,  and  in  admiring  it  the  public  showed  a  true  feeling  for 
poetry.  But  it  is  true  that  the  Elegy  owed  much  of  its  success 
to  its  subject,  and  that  it  has  received  a  too  unmeasured  and 
unbounded  praise. 

Gray  himself,  however,  maintained  that  the  Elegy  was  not  his 
best  work  in  poetry,  and  he  was  right.  High  as  is  the  praise 
due  to  the  Elegy,  it  is  yet  true  that  in  other  productions  of  Graj" 
he  exhibits  poetical  qualities  even  higher  than  those  exhibited 
in  the  Elegy.  He  deserves,  therefore,  his  extremelj^  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  poet,  although  his  critics  and  the  public  may  not 
always  have  praised  him  with  perfect  judgment.  We  are 
brought  back,  then,  to  the  question :  How,  in  a  poet  so  really 
considerable,  are  we  to  explain  his  scantiness  of  production? 

Scanty,  Gray's  production,  indeed,  is;  so  scanty  that  to  supple- 
ment our  knowledge  of  it  by  a  knowledge  of  the  man  is,  in  this 
case,  of  peculiar  interest  and  service.  Gray's  letters  and  the 
records  of  him  by  his  friends  have  happily  made  it  possible  for 
us  thus  to  know  him,  and  to  appreciate  his  high  qualities  of 
mind  and  soul.  Let  us  see  these  in  the  man  first,  and  then 
observe  how  they  appear  in  his  poetry ;  and  why  they  can  not 
enter  into  it  more  freely  and  inspire  it  with  more  strength, 
render  it  more  abundant. — Matthew  Arnold:  Essays  on 
Criticism,  Second  Series. 

H.  Eewrite  the  following  incoherent  paragraphs: 

1.  There  are  many  reasons  advanced  against  coeducation, 
many  of  them  unreasonable  and  absurd.  Most  of  the  objec- 
tions come  from  abroad.  There  the  sexes  are  held  strictly 
apart  during  youth.  Some  say  that  the  association  of  men  and 
women  in  school  life  is  not  to  their  advantage.  Since  men 
and  women  ai-e  intended  for  mutual  service,  the  best  way  to 
train  them  is  by  tx-aining  them  together. 

2.  The  meadow-lark  is  verj-  shy  in  nestiug  season  and  hides 
her  eggs  so  that  it  is  verj'  difficult  to  discover  them.  When  I 
was  suffering  from  the  collecting  fever,  I  hunted  the  meadows 
for  days,  in  a  vain  hope  of  finding  an  egg,  but  I  always  returned 
empty-handed.    To  have  a  meadow-lark's  egg  in  one's  collection 


338  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

was  to  be  the  envy  of  the  admiring  multitude  of  schoolboys. 
One  day  I  found  a  nest.  It  was  one  of  the  events  of  the  first 
twelve  years  of  my  life,  to  be  classed  along  with  going  to  New 
York  or  breaking  an  arm. 

I  was  trudging  around  a  meadow  behind  a  mowing  maclune, 
now  and  then  picking  the  wild  strawberries  cut  dov.n  by  tlie 
clattering  knives,  when,  directly  in  front,  between  my  feet,  I 
spied  a  meadow-lark's  nest  and  four  of  the  coveted  speckled 
eggs.  The  nest  was  skillfully  hidden  under  a  tuft  of  buffalo 
gi-ass,  but  the  mower  had  torn  the  grass  away  and  left  it 
exposed.  As  I  remember,  I  was  guilty  of  taking  all  four  eggs. 
I  did  it  in  the  intex"est  of  science ;  I  knew  v,-here  I  could  make  a 
number  of  exchanges  with  the  prospect  of  great  advantage. 

3.  The  recent  bequest  of  Cecil  Rliodes  to  education  has  been  a 
revelation  of  his  character.  Many  people  have  looked  upon  him 
as  a  selfish,  grasping  man,  failing  to  see  the  real  motive  in  his 
far-reaching  scliemes.  A  few  years  ago  he  is  said  to  have  passed 
his  hand  over  the  map  of  Africa  and  exclaimed:  "All  English! 
that  is  my  dream."  Toward  the  realization  of  that  dream  Cecil 
Rhodes  strove  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  bending  every 
energy  to  the  acquirement  of  wealth,  because,  as  he  said, 
"Wealth  is  power."  People  stigmatized  his  purpose  as  imwor- 
tliy,  yet  it  was  essentially  philanthropic.  Realizing  the  futility 
of  attempting  to  acquire  all  Africa  by  railroads  and  military 
power,  he.  turned  his  attention  to  educational  forces,  and  con- 
ceived the  comprehensive  plan  of  spreading  English  civilization, 
not  alone  over  Africa,  but  tlirougliout  the  world.  To  this  end 
his  bequest  was  directed,  and  though  his  purpose  may  have  been 
no  better  than  that  in  his  South  African  operations,  the  people 
regard  it,  and  justh%  as  a  boon  to  the  human  race. 

4.  Three  years  ago  this  fall  I  commenced  my  study  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature.  I  have  always  been  fond  of 
reading,  and  the  work  was,  therefore,  agreeable  to  me,  although 
it  was  not  until  the  last  year  of  my  preparatory  course  that 
English  work  became  what  it  is  now — my  favorite  study. 
During  this  last  year  we  used  Jones's  Principles  of  English,  a 
book  which  was  ratlier  advanced  for  us,  as  I  think,  though  I 
liked  it  because  it  had  many  interesting  examples  of  faults  in 
well-known  authors,  and  tliat  clieered  me  up  about  my  own  short- 
comings. During  the  first  year  not  so  much  attention  was  paid 
to  rlietoric  as  to  literature.  We  studied  The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables,  Tennyson's  Princess,  and  Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation. 


THE    STRUCTURE   OF  THE   SINGLE    PARAGRAPH      339 

In  the  second  year,  our  time  was  pretty  evenl}'  divided  between 
literature  and  rhetoric.  We  used  Jones  again,  and  read  some 
plaj's  of  Sliakspere's.  In  the  third  year,  we  read  the  books 
prescribed  for  the  college  entrance  examinations.  I  omitted  to 
say  that  it  w^as  in  the  second  year  that  we  wi-ote  themes,  a  sort  of 
work  which  was  very  interesting,  especially  when  other  people's 
themes  were  read  in  class.  We  wrote  on  subjects  connected 
with  the  required  reading,  or  on  any  little  thing  that  happened 
to  lis. 

5.  Burke  says  that  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Ameri- 
can Colonies  have  given  them  ''a  fierce  spirit  of  liberty."  The 
reasons  ai-e:  1,  their  descent  from  the  English  —  a  liberty- 
loving  nation;  3,  their  government,  which  consists  of  local 
assemblies,  giving  them  local  liberty;  3,  their  religion  is  one 
which  protests  against  the  lack  of  liberty  in  the  English  Chui-ch. 
The  fact  that  slavery  exists  among  them  has  the  effect  of  mak- 
ing them  consider  liberty  a  privilege  of  rank,  and  therefore  they 
hold  it  dear.  5,  their  education  is  mostly  directed  toward  law, 
which  fact  gives  them  a  good  idea  of  their  rightful  privileges ; 
6,  the  fact  that  the  colonies  are  remote  from  the  head  of  tlie 
government  always  tends  to  weaken  its  authority. 

/,  Define  paragraph-emphasis.  How  may  it  he  se- 
cured? 

J.  Criticise  specifically  the  following  unemphatic  para- 
graphs : 

1.  In  the  last  few  years,  as  the  result  of  the  Spanish- 
American  war,  the  people  of  this  country  have  become  imbued 
with  a  spirit  of  expansion.  It  seems  to  be  their  idea  to  become 
a  great  world-power,  to  stretch  out  immense  arms  over  the  earth, 
and  perform  wonders.  It  seems  to  be  their  sincei'e  desire  to 
pacify  civilized  countries,  to  bring  civilization  to  those  living  in 
semi-barbarous  darkness,  and  altogether  to  perform  undertak- 
ings of  herculean  proportions.  Nor  will  other  lands  alone 
benefit  by  this.  Probably  the  trade  of  the  United  States  will 
increase  seventy-five  per  cent. 

2.  Edward  Watson,  the  celebrated  actor  of  the  "Pudd'nhead 
Wilson"  company,  who  was  in  full  health  and  vigor  yesterday,  is 
to-day  lying  a  corpse  in  a  private  room  at  the  Chateau  Fron- 
tenac.  He  arrived  in  our  city  late  last  evening,  and  passed  away 
to  his  long  home  most  unexpectedly,  shortly  after  two  o'clock  this 


340  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

moriiiug,  in  tlie  presence  of  three  other  gentlemen.  The  news 
cf  his  untimely  end  was  a  shock  to  the  members  of  the  com- 
pany, to  whom  he  had  endeared  himself  by  his  kindly  and  jolly 
disposition.  Mr.  Watson  arrived  in  this  city,  accompanied  by 
his  wife  and  daughter  and  the  members  of  the  company,  last 
evening  and  was  met  at  the  station  by  several  Quebecers  who 
accompanied  him  to  the  Chateau  Frontenac. 

3.  It  is  receding  rapidl^^  now — this  historic  old  place  [Mount 
Vernon].  And  as  our  steamer  puffs  along,  a  feeling  of  awe  and 
reverence  steals  over  us,  and  our  thoughts  take  on  an  historical 
nature.  Here  in  this  very  spot,  not  so  long  ago,  lived  the  man 
to  whom  the  United  States  of  America  owes  a  debt  not  to  be 
conaputed.  Honest  man,  courteous  gentleman,  wise  statesman, 
valiant  soldier — he  is  a  lofty  example  to  all  succeeding  genera- 
tions— justly  called  the  Father  of  his  Country.  And  now,  as 
we  turn  a  bend  in  the  river,  a  distant  chanticleer  crows 
farewell. 

4.  The  next  year  I  went  to  Paris.  Here  I  had  a  French  maid, 
who  took  charge  of  me.  Eveiy  Wednesday  she  took  me  to  the 
Bois  de  Boulogne,  where  we  had  lunch.  I  used  to  spend  all  my 
allowance  on  the  queer  trinkets  which  I  found  in  the  fasci- 
nating shops  about  Paris.  ]\Iy  life  passed  there  was  much  more 
delightful  than  it  is  here,  where  my  time  is  taken  up  with 
studies,  music,  and  a  few  parties,  pleasant  but  uninteresting. 

5.  About  two  weeks  ago,  I  was  invited  to  join  a  party  that 
was  going  to  Plymouth.  We  started  from  Boston  at  10  o'clock 
and  arrived  tliere  at  twelve.  Carriages  awaited  us  at  the  station, 
and  we  drove  at  once  to  a  hotel,  where  dinner  was  served. 
After  dinner  we  visited  almost  all  the  places  of  interest,  among 
them  the  Museum,  Plymouth  Rock,  and  the  old  historic  ceme- 
tery. This  cemetery  was  the  burial  place  of  some  of  the 
Pilgrims  who  died  during  the  first  winter's  stay  in  Plymouth. 
There  is  very  little  business  going  on  in  Plymouth,  but  the  town 
is  visited  by  many  travelers  and  historical  societies. 

6.  The  natural  beauty  of  the  lake  possesses  great  charms. 
Along  its  border  tiiere  are  few  marshes,  but  there  are  great 
tracts  of  woodland  running  down  to  the  shore,  with  many  pretty 
groves.  Its  waters  are  very  calm,  owing  partly  to  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  lake,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  is  sheltered  by  the 
surrounding  hills.  This  makes  it  an  ideal  place  for  college  boat 
races. 

7.  To  any  one  who  wislies  to  get  an  idea  of  life  in  a  jungle, 


THE    STRUCTUEE    OF   THE    SINGLE    PARAGRAPH      341 

or  even  of  the  customs  of  the  people  in  the  Arctic  regions,  Kip- 
ling's Second  Jungle  Book  will  give  many  definite  impressions. 
This  knowledge  of  the  jungle  is  given  by  taking  an  imaginary 
man,  or  rather  a  boy  who  is  called  Mowgli.  His  life  is  associ- 
ated with  the  many  diflfei'ent  animals  of  the  jungle.  In  this 
way  the  instincts  and  characteristics  of  the  animals  are 
described  in  a  very  realistic  manner,  which  manifests  the  great 
power  of  imagination  that  the  writer  possesses.  It  is  very 
interesting  to  read  how  Mowgli  kept  the  good  favor  of  the  great 
masters  of  the  jungle.  The  chapter  which  tells  of  his  escape 
from  the  pack  of  wolves  can  not  but  interest  the  reader. 

K.  Bead  again  the  paragraph  from  Bryce  on  page  319, 
and  discuss  the  method  by  which  he  gives  tiie  paragraph 
emphasis. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION 

151.  The  Relation  of  the  Paragraph  to  the  Whole  Com- 
position.— A  paragraph  may  be  a  complete  composition  in 
itself.  A  small  subject  may  be  fully  treated  iu  oue  unit. 
Usually,  however,  we  uuderstand  by  the  term  "whole 
composition"  a  composition  containing  a  number  of  well- 
marked  organic  divisions  called  paragraphs.^  Xo  matter 
what  may  be  the  nature  of  the  subject,  those  divisions 
should  represent  steps  in  the  thought,  and  as  they  stand 
in  the  finished  work  form  a  whole  composition,  which 
like  the  single  paragraphs  of  Avliich  it  is  composed 
observes  the  rhetorical  principles. 

152.  Unity  in  the  Whole  Composition. — Though  tlie 
unit  in  the  case  of  the  Avhole  composition  embraces  more 
topics  than  can  bo  treated  properly  in  the  single  para- 
graph, the  principle  of  unity  in  the  Avhole  comj)osition  is 
precisely  what  it  is  in  the  paragraph.  Unity  may  ])e 
violated  by  the  introduction  of  too  many  topics,  or  by  the 
incomplete  development  of  necessary  topics.  Matter  that, 
although  related  to  the  subject,  is  a  digression  from  the 
main  purpose  of  the  theme,  must  be  excluded.  A  good 
plan,  or  outline,  of  the  whole  composition  will  aid  the 
writer  in  preserving  unity. 

153.  Proportion  in  the  Whole  Composition. — Closely 
related  to  the  principle  of  unity  is  that  of  proportion. 
The  different  parts  of  the  whole  composition  must  be 
planned  with  reference  to  each  other,   no   one  division 

1  See  Cliapicr  HI. 

342 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF  THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION"       343 

being  given  an  undue  prominence.  The  outline  will  often 
reveal  the  fact  that  too  many  paragraphs  have  been 
devoted  to  one  portion  of  the  theme,  perhaps  the  intro- 
duction or  the  conclusion  or  some  subordinate  point  in 
the  body.  These  inequalities,  when  they  occur  in  the 
final  draft  of  the  theme,  necessitate  recasting  the  whole. 
In  the  outline,  or  first  draft,  however,  it  is  easy  to  strike 
out  or  subordinate  unimportant  topics.  Every  piece  of 
Avriting  should  leave  Avith  the  reader  an  impression  of 
balance  or  proportion. 

154.  The  Order  of  the  Paragraphs  in  the  Whole  Compo- 
sition.— In  this  larger  unit  the  most  important  matter  is 
the  order  of  its  parts.  The  whole  composition  may  be 
likened  to  a  chain  of  which  the  paragraphs  form  the 
links.  To  gain  clearness,  the  writer  must  include  in  his 
chain  of  jjaragraphs  every  essential  link,  and  ho  must 
place  the  links  where  they  properly  belong  in  the  develop- 
ment of  his  ideas.  If  ho  omits  links  or  misplaces  them, 
the  reader  will  miss  the  order  of  thought  and  become 
confused.  The  proper  order  for  paragraphs  in  the  whole 
composition  is  a  question  of  logic.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
choice  among  several  methods  of  arranging  the  parts,  and 
the  best  arrangement  can  be  found  only  after  experiment. 
In  the  following  newspaper  article  there  is  no  apparent 
reason  why  the  second  paragi'aph  should  follow  the  first, 
or  the  third  the  second,  or  the  fourth  the  third : 

The  first  church  services  were  held  in  the  new  town  of  Lavv- 
ton  last  Sunday.  They  were  held  in  the  open  air,  near  the 
railroad  tracks,  and  the  people  from  all  sections  came. 

Plans  are  now  being  made  to  erect  a  church  building  for  all 
denominations  at  this  new  border  metropolis.  For  a  month  or 
more  the  religious  element  has  been  without  the  opportunity 
of  attending  church,  except  at  a  few  of  the  impromptu  meetings 
lield  in  tents. 

It  was  unique,  this  first  church  service  held  on  the  border. 
Men  and  women  came  carrying  guns,  while  deputy  marshals 


344  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

rode  around  the  teut  where  the  preacher  was  camped  to  keep 
the  rough  element  from  running  him  away.  Tlie  minister,  the 
Rev.  Edward  Smitli,  is  no  tenderfoot,  and  he  preached  a  power- 
ful sermon,  with  a  six-shooter  attached  to  his  belt.  Thei'e  is  not 
so  much  danger  from  outlaws  at  Lawton  as  from  the  hundreds 
of  gamblers  who  seek  to  keep  everything  in  a  wild  state. 

Deputj'  marshals,  under  the  direction  of  United  States  Marshal 
Harry  Thompson,  are  numerous  in  the  new  country,  there  being 
fifty  or  more  of  them.  Tliey  are  all  mounted  on  good  horses 
and  are  keeping  the  country  in  fairly  good  order.  Of  course 
there  are  a  few  gangs  of  bad  men  wlio  can  not  be  suppressed  on 
the  moment.  It  will  require  six  months  at  least  to  tame  the  new 
country  thoroughly  and  make  it  as  civilized  as  the  surrounding 
districts.  The  Indians  are  taking  a  vital  interest  in  having  the 
outlaws  and  gamblers  squelched,  and  several  of  the  warriors 
have  enlisted  on  the  mtiv.shal's  staff  and  are  now  helping  to  rid 
their  former  domain  of  all  bad  characters. 

.Several  churches  in  tents  have  been  established  at  Anadarko, 
while  one  is  running  at  Hobart.  The  missionaries  have  churches 
f')r  the  Indians  at  several  of  the  Government  posts,  but  these 
are  far  from  the  white  settlements. 

Compare  with  these  disjointed  paragraphs  the  following: 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND   TOWNSHIP 

In  a  New  England  township  the  people  directly  govern  them- 
selves; the  government  is  the  people,  or,  to  spea,k  with  entire 
]irecision,  it  is  all  the  male  inhabitants  of  one-and-twenty  years 
of  age  and  upwards.  The  people  tax  themselves.  Once  each 
year,  usually  ir.  IMarch  but  sometimes  as  early  as  February  or  as 
late  as  April,  a  "town-meeting"  is  held,  at  which  all  the  grown 
men  of  the  township  are  expected  to  be  present  and  to  vote, 
wliile  any  one  may  introduce  motions  or  take  part  in  the  discus- 
sion. In  early  times  there  was  a  fine  for  non-afctendance,  but 
that  is  no  longer  the  case;  it  is  supposed  that  a  due  regard  to 
Ids  own  interests  will  induce  every  man  to  come. 

The  town-meeting  is  lield  in  the  town-house,  T)ut  at  fir.^t  it 
used  to  be  held  in  the  church,  which  was  thus  a  "meeting- 
liouse"  for  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  purposes.  At  tlie 
town-meeting  measures  relating  to  the  administration  of  town 
affairs  are  discussed  and  adopted  or  rejected;  appropriations  are 
made  for  tl\e  public  expenses  of  the  town,  or  in  other  words  the 
auiount  of  the  town  taxes  for  the  year  is  determined;  and  town 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    WHOLE    COMPOSITION       345 

officers  are  elected  for  tlie  year.  Let  us  first  enumerate  tliese 
officers. 

The  principal  executive  magistrates  of  the  town  are  the  select- 
men. They  are  three,  five,  seven,  or  nine  in  number,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  town  and  the  amount  of  public  business  to  be 
transacted.  Tlie  odd  number  insures  a  majority  decision  in  case 
of  any  difference  of  opinion  among  them.  They  have  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  jjublic  business.  They  issue  warrants  for  the 
holding  of  town-meetings,  and  they  can  call  such  a  meeting  at 
any  time  during  the  year  when  there  seems  to  be  a  need  for  it,  but 
the  warrant  must  always  specif  j^  the.subjects  which  are  to  be  dis- 
cussed and  acted  on  at  the  meeting.  Tlie  selectmen  also  lay  out 
highways,  grant  licenses,  and  impanel  jurors;  they  may  act  as 
health  officers  and  issue  orders  regarding  sewei'age,  the  abate- 
ment of  nuisances,  or  the  isolation  of  contagious  diseases;  in 
many  cases  they  act  as  assessors  of  taxes,  and  as  overseers  of  the 
poor.  They  are  the  proper  persons  to  listen  to  complaints  if 
anything  goes  wrong  in  the  town.  In  county  matters  and  state 
matters  they  speak  for  the  town,  and  if  it  is  a  party  to  a  law- 
suit, they  represent  it  in  court;  for  the  New  England  town  is  a 
legal  corporation,  and  as  such  can  hold  property,  and  sue  and  be 
sued.  In  a  certain  sense  the  selectmen  may  be  said  to  be  "the 
government"  of  the  town  during  the  intervals  between  the 
town-meetings. 

An  officer  no  less  important  than  the  selectmen  is  the  town- 
clerk.  .  .  . — John  Fiske:    Civil  Oovernment  in  the  United  States. 

155.  The  Plan,  or  Outline. — If  a  writer  has  a  keen 
sense  of  order  and  logic,  he  can  arrange  the  parts  of  his 
whole  composition  as  he  writes.  Few  writers,  however, 
can  trust  themselves  to  work  without  any  preliminary 
plan.  In  the  end,  no  matter  how  simj)le  the  subject  may 
be,  it  is  easier  to  make  an  outline  of  the  subject  first. 
These  first  notes,  or  jottings,  have  been  described  in  sec- 
tions 13  and  15  chiefly  as  an  aid  in  gathering  material.  We 
shall  now  consider  the  outline  as  a  help  in  ordering  the 
parts  of  the  whole  composition.  For  such  a  purpose  a  few 
words  or  phrases  may  answer,  if  the  theme  is  a  short  one 
on  some  simple  matter.  However,  especially  in  long 
themes   the  more  pains  one  takes  with  this  outline,  the 


346  COMPOSITION"    AND    RHETORIC 

easier  the  tictnal  labor  of  composition  will  become.  It  is 
best,  therefore,  to  frame  a  full  heading  for  each  para- 
graph of  the  theme.  To  this  may  be  joined,  in  brackets, 
brief  notes  of  the  contents  of  the  paragraph.  In  cases 
where  the  whole  composition  will  reach  to  more  than  a 
thousand  words  (roughly,  about  five  theme-pages),  a  more 
extended  outline  is  advisable, — one  that  will  indicate 
larger  parts  of  the  whole  than  the  paragraph,  such  as  the 
beginning,  the  body,  and  the  conclusion. 

The  first  outline  that  follows  is  a  mere  list  of  topics. 
The  second  is  an  adequate  outline  of  a  four-page  theme. 

A.  Sewing  in  the  Grammar  Schools. 
I.  Not  profitable. 

1.  Not  in  all  schools. 

a.  Not  time  enough. 
II.  Enough  to  do  without  it. 
1.  Other  work  neglected. 

III.  Bad  for  health. 

1.  Work  at  home. 

IV.  Teachers  poor. 

V.  Shovild  be  discontinued. 

3.  Sewing  in  tlie  Grammar  Schools. 

I.  Sewing  has  been  introduced  as  a  study  in  the  gram- 
mar schools. 
1.  Reasons  for  its  introduction. 
II.  It  is  not  a  profitable  course. 

1.  Too  little  time  (from  fifteen  to  lliirty  minutes) 

is  given  dail}"  to  the  work. 

2.  The  instructors  are  not  competent,  for 

a.  They  have  received  no  special  training  in 
thi.s  subject. 

3.  That  many  in  authority  grant  this  proposition 

is  shown  by  the  fact  that  sewing  has  not  been 
put  into  all  the  scliools. 
III.  The  pupils  do  not  have  time  for  both  sewing  and 
their  otlier  more  important  work. 
1.  Already  each  lesson  receives  but  thirty  min- 
utes. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITIGIS"       347 

IV.  The  work    lias  a   bad  effect  on  the  pupils"  health 
1.  As  they  are  required  to  do  a  good  deal  of  it  at 
home,  their  time  for  exercise  in  the  fresh  air 
is  shortened. 

The  preparation  of  the  outline,  though  a  somewhat 
tedious  task,  is  the  only  means  of  insuring  orderly  writ- 
ing. The  writer  y/ill  detect  in  his  outline  what  parts  of 
his  subject  can  not  be  related  to  the  whole,  and  what 
parts,  misplaced  in  his  plan,  belong  naturally  together. 

156.  The  Use  of  Connectives. — It  is  not  enough  to 
arrange  the  parts  of  the  ^\hole  composition  logically. 
The  relation  between  the  parts  must  be  made  plain  by 
the  use  of  connectives.  In  the  whole  composition,  this  is 
much  more  necessary  than  in  the  paragraph  where  the 
sentences  are  often  so  close  in  thought  that  they  do  not 
need  verbal  links.  The  reader  should  not  be  left  to  find 
out  that  the  writer's  order  of  thought  between  the  para- 
graphs is  the  proper  one.  He  should  feel  at  once  as  he 
reads  that  the  ideas  are  coherent.  The  following  para- 
graphs are  connected  in  thought,  but  the  connection  is 
not  made  clear : 

From  the  point  of  view  of  health  there  can  be  no  comparison 
between  a  good  game — in  which  every  muscle  is  suitably  exer- 
cised, and  brain  and  lungs  join  in  the  complete  happiness  of  the 
honest  laugh  and  the  careless  shout — and  the  "dead-alive"  mili- 
tary drill,  or  formal  gymnastics,  which  while  developing  many 
"muscles  abnox'mally,  leave  the  bi-ain  torpid  and  the  spirit 
depressed. 

The  game  must  be  regulated.  Unselfishness  must  be  practiced 
at  every  turn ;  the  strong  must  help  the  weak ;  and  the  weak 
must  be  aroused  that  they  maj'  not  be  a  drag  upon  the  sti'ong. 
The  team  that  represents  a  school  must  be  chosen  purely  on  the 
merit  of  its  members,  those  selected  being  as  jealous  of  their 
honorable  distinction  as  the  rejected  are  glad  to  stand  aside  for 
the  honor  of  their  common  cause.  As  the  credit  of  the  school 
demands  the  best  effort  of  every  individual,  there  must  be 
patient  practice  and  steady  perseverance. — (Adapted  from 
Forum,  No.  27,  p.  320.) 


348  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

A  counecting  phrase  cau  easily  be  supplied  in  the  first 
sentence  of  the  second  paragraph,  which  will  bind  the 
two  paragraphs  together ;  e.  g. ,  ' '//'  the  fall  henefits  of  a  game 
are  to  he  reaped^  Itoiuever^  the  game  must  be  regulated." 

Careful  writers  employ  three  obvious  devices  to  bring 
out  the  connection  between  the  parts  of  the  whole  com- 
position. The  first  is  the  use  of  conjunctions  and 
conjunctive  adverbs  (especially  "hence,"  "therefore," 
"moreover,"  "then,"  "however,"  and  "now").  "And" 
or  "but"  may  be  used  to  link  two  paragraphs,  but  only 
when  the  thought  of  the  second  paragraph  as  a  whole  is 
parallel  with,  or  in  opposition  to,  that  of  the  first.  They 
should  not  be  used  to  unite  the  last  sentence  of  the  first 
paragraph  with  the  first  sentence  of  the  second.  The 
second  device  is  the  use  of  reference  words,  such  as 
"this,"  "that,"  "these,"  "those,"  "such,"  and  "like." 
These  terms  need  not  be  the  very  first  in  the  opening  sen- 
tence of  the  paragraph ;  they  may  be  woven  into  the  first 
sentence  at  some  succeeding  point,  as,  "Pride,  under  such 
training,  is  turned  to  account,"  and,  "I  might  consider 
in  the  same  manner  ..."  The  third  device  is  the  repeti- 
tion in  opening  a  paragraph,  of  words  or  phrases  used  in 
the  closing  sentences  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  as  in 
this  passage: 

I  was  veiy  sure  that,  if  my  proposition  were  futile  or  danger- 
ous, if  it  were  weakly  conceived  or  improperly  timed,  there  was 
nothing  exterior  to  it,  of  power  to  awe,  dazzle,  or  delude  you. 
You  will  see  it  just  as  it  is,  and  you  will  treat  it  just  as  it 
deserves. 

The  proposition  is  peace,  etc. — Burke  :  Conciliation  irifh 
AnieiHca. 

It  is  useless,  however,  to  attempt  to  disguise  disorderly 
thinking  by  tying  together  with  connectives  loosely 
related  thoughts.  Logical  thinking  must  underlie  cleiir 
writing.  The  orderly  arrangement  of  thought  should 
precede  all  attempts  to  use  rhetorical  links. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION       349 

157.  How  to  Open  the  Whole  Composition. — To  make  a 
good  begiiming  is  a  difficult  feat  in  composition.  A  dan- 
gerous piece  of  advice  sometimes  given  to  yonng  writers, 
is  to  devote  an  entire  paragraph  to  the  introduction.  In 
long  essays  or  books,  such  an  opening,  containing  a 
general  statement  of  the  author's  purpose  and  his  plan, 
may  make  a  suitable  introduction.  Carlyle's  Essay  on 
Burns,  for  example,  has  an  introduction  five  paragraphs 
in  length,  which  treats  of  biography  in  general  and  of  the 
various  biographies  of  Burns.  Macaulay,  on  the  other 
hand,  gives  in  the  very  first  paragraph  of  his  essay  on 
The  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson  Johnson's  birth  and  early 
life.     He  begins: 

Samuel  Johnson,  one  of  the  most  eminent  English  writers  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  tlie  son  of  Michael  Johnson,  v/ho 
was  at  the  beginning  of  that  centuiy  a  magistrate  of  Lichfield 
and  a  bookseller  of  great  note  in  the  midland  comities. 

This  more  direct  form  of  introduction  is,  generally 
speaking,  preferable.  Preliminaries  are  usually  dull;  the 
introduction  is  the  writer's  scatfolding  for  his  thoughts, 
and  it  should  be  removed  when  his  final  draft  is  made. 
Especially  in  telling  a  story  or  in  describing  an  object,  it 
is  desirable  to  avoid  an  elaborate  opening,  for  in  such 
cases  the  reader's  attention  must  be  gained  at  once. 
This,  for  example,  is  a  good  beginning  for  a  story: 

PERE  CHEVREFILS 

A  month  had  passed  since  old  Pere  La  Force  was  buried 
beneath  the  stone  floor  of  the  chapel  where  he  had  so  long 
attended  the  spiritual  wants  of  his  little  flock.  Four  whole  Sun- 
days without  a  mass,  and  then  M.  Chevrefils  arrived  from  3Ion- 
treal  to  take  charge  of  the  parish.  He  came  on  the  night  train; 
and  although  old  Joe  Pileaux  and  two  or  three  other  town 
advisers  loitered  aroTuid  the  station  to  see  what  lie  was  like,  some- 
how he  slipped  past  the  watcliers  and  was  walking  swiftly  up 
the  road  before  they  noticed  him. 

Sunday    morning    everyone    in    St.    Anne's    was    at    niaso. 


350  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORir 

Wagons  and  cfjrts  tliat  were  seen  only  at  Easter-time  were 
hitched  under  the  trees,  wiiose  branches  spread  over  the  little 
chapel.  The  Demots  from  La  Prairie,  Old  Buck,  the  chief  of  the 
Cocoguo wages,  even  old  Therese  Lozon,  who  had  not  gone  to 
mass  for  years  on  account  of  her  rheumatism,  were  there.  The 
sabots,  that  were  never  discarded  by  the  old  folk,  clattered  up 
the  narrow  aisles  until  the  very  last  stroke  of  the  bell. 

Sterne  begins  his  Sentimental  Journey  in  this  informal 
manner : 

"They  order,'"  said  I,  "this  matter  better  in  France."' 

Lowell  opens  an  essay  on  "The  Study  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages" with  this  slight  introductiou: 

Three  years  ago  I  was  one  of  those  who  gathered  in  the  San- 
ders Theatre  to  commemorate  the  two  hundred  and  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  a  college  founded  to  perpetuate  living  learning 
chiefly  l)y  the  help  of  three  dead  languages — the  Hebrew,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Latin.  I  have  given  them  that  order  of  prece- 
dence which  they  had  in  the  minds  of  those  our  pious  founders. 
Tlie  Hebrew  came  first  because  they  believed  that  it  had  been 
spoken  by  God  Himself,  and  that  it  would  have  been  the  com- 
mon speech  of  mankind  but  for  the  judicial  invention  of  the 
modern  languages  at  Shinar.  Greek  came  next  because  the  New 
Te.stament  was  written  in  that  tongue,  and  Latin  last  as  the 
interpreter  between  scholars.  Of  the  men  who  stood  about  that 
fateful  cradle  swung  from  bough  of  the  primeval  forest,  there 
were  probably  few  who  believed  that  a  book  written  in  any 
living  language  could  itself  live. 

For  nearly  two  hundred  years  no  modern  language  was  con- 
tinuously and  systematically  taught  here.  In  the  latter  half  of 
the  last  century  a  stray  Frenchman  was  caught  now  and  then. 

A  good  opening,  however,  must  bo  more  Ihan  brief;  it 
must  be  engaging.  Where  shall  we  attack  our  subject  to 
get  the  most  interesting  view  of  it?  Lowell  introduces 
his  essay  l)y  stating  strikingly  the  past  condition  of  edu- 
cation in  regard  to  modern  languages.  After  showing 
how  completely  ignored  this  subject  has  been,  he  proceeds 
to  discuss  its  value.  One  form  of  introduction  often  used 
by  speakers  is  a  short  story  or  apt  illustration  of  the  topic. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    "WHOLE    COMPOSITION      351 

Another  common  form  is  some  general  assertion  that  is 
debatable,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  an  assertion  which  is 
indisputably  true.  In  every  case,  the  writer  should  seek 
to  gain  the  reader's  attention. 

158.  How  to  End  the  Whole  Composition, — To  end  well 
is  almost  as  diflicult  as  to  begin  well.  The  conclusion 
should  be  interesting  and  important,  perhaps  even  more 
so  than  the  beginning.  The  descriptive  theme  tliat  fol- 
lows runs  down  at  the  end,  as  if  the  writer  were  tired  of 
his  subject: 

We  trudged  into  Amherst  about  dusk,  as  the  chapel  bell  was 
striking  seven  o'clock, — a  very  tired  lot  of  boys,  judging  by 
myself.  Besides  getting  an  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the  surround- 
ing country,  of  which  I  have  not  said  much  on  account  of  lack 
of  time,  we  became  well  acquainted  with  one  another;  this  fact 
alone  was  enough  to  pay  us  for  our  day's  outing  in  the  mountains. 

I  sui^pose  you  have  reached  this  point  in  my  story  only  after 
the  second  or  third  reading,  but  you  know  you  said  j'ou  wanted 
me  to  tell  everything  I  did,  so  this  is  wliat  I  have  done.  I  can 
not  think  of  anything  more  to  say  now,  and  I  nnist  close  and  get 
to  work.  You  are  always  calling  for  my  letters,  but  I  do  not 
hear  from  you  half  as  ofteu  as  you  do  from  me. 

If  he  had  said  simply,  "Wo  trudged  into  Amherst  about 
dusk,  as  the  chapel  bell  was  striking  seven  o'clock — a 
very  tired  lot  of  boys,"  he  Avould  have  left  us  with  a 
clearer,  happier  impression  of  his  excursion.  The  best 
rule,  especially  in  description  or  informal  narrative,  is  to 
be  brief  in  the  conclusion,  as  in  the  opening.  Find  out 
where  the  interest  in  the  subject  really  ends,  and  liave 
the  courage  to  leave  off  at  that  point.  Avoid  postscripts, 
for  if  the  information  contained  in  the  postscript  is 
important,  it  probably  belongs  earlier  in  the  theme,  and 
should  be  inserted  in  its  proper  place.  One  form  of  the 
postscript  that  is  especially  annoying  occurs  when  the 
writer,  thinking  that  tlie  reader  will  not  see  his  point, 
tries  to  explain  it  or  to  moralize  about  it.     I'he  real  end 


852  COMPOSI.TIOlsr    AND    RHETORIC 

of  this  description,  for  example,  is  "a  sense  of  ceaseless 
activity  which  accomplishes  nothing": 

AN   AFTERNOON   RECITATION 

My  afternoon  recitation  in  Beovmlf  brought  little  with  it. 
The  large,  dark  room  was  crowded  with  students  who  settled 
themselves  in  their  chairs  in  the  jileasing  anticipation  of  being 
bored  for  an  hour.  Before  us  sat  the  teacher— short,  heavy,  anti 
uninteresting,  gazing  impassively  at  us  over  her  spectacles.  The 
hour  began  with  a  recitation  on  the  assigned  lesson,  now  and 
then  interrupted  by  the  squeaking  of  the  door,  as  some  tardy 
member  entered.  Then  the  teacher  spent  the  remaining  time 
reading  aloud  in  a  monotonous  voice  extracts  from  Beowulf, 
especially  descriptions  of  a  lonely  sea  and  gloomy  conflicts. 
From  the  chapel  overhead  came  the  melancholy  wailing  of  the 
organ  practice.  The  impression  received  from  the  window  was 
just  as  cheerless;  there,  a  somber  gray  sky  met  our  gaze.  Amid 
the  howling  of  the  wind  there  were  lieard  occasional  dull  thuds, 
as  a  strong  gust  shook  down  the  late  j^ears  from  a  now  almost 
leafless  pear  tree  near  the  window.  No  less  so  was  the  mental 
picture  of  the  eternal  dashing  of  waves  on  a  bleak  shore  under  a 
leaden  sky,  and  a  solitary  hero  on  the  strand,  engaged  in  mortal 
combat  with  a  grim  monster.  There  was  something  oppressive 
about  the  whole  atmosphere— a  sense  of  ceaseless  activity  which 
accomplishes  nothing. 

The  result  caused  by  the  mingled  effect  of  dropping  pears, 
wailing  wind,  moaning  organ,  droning  reader,  and  splashing 
waves,  was  depressing. 

An  abrnpt  conclusion,  on  the  other  hand,  especially 
after  treating  a  difficult  or  large  subject,  leaves  the  reader 
wondering  what  the  article  has  been  Avritten  for.  In  this 
final  paragraph  of  an  essay  on  Shelley's  life,  t-he  author 
has  cut  oil'  his  remarks  with  a  knife: 

Minor  works,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Ode  to  the  West 
Wind,  The  Cloud,  To  the  Skylark,  and  To  Niglit,  follosved  in 
rapid  succession.  Tliese  little  poems  are  sometimes  thoughtful, 
sometimes  merely  suggestive,  and  sometimes  mystic;  but  they 
are  always  charming.  Of  his  longer  poems,  Adonaia  is  the  most 
l)opuJar.  It  is  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  Keats,  and,  next  to 
Lycidas,  is  the  finest  elegy  in  the  language. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    WHOLK    COMPOSITION      o53 

The  length  of  the  conclusion  will  iiiiturally  depend  upon 
the  scale  and  the  nature  of  the  whole  composition.  If 
the  subject  is  a  complex  or  difficult  one,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  conclusion  a  summary  of  the  chief 
points  touched  upon,  as  in  the  following  illustration: 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  stated  that: 

1.  The  American  people  are  determined  to  have  an  Isthmian 
Canal  owned  and  operated  exclusively  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment. Having  refused  partnersliip  with  an  American  com- 
pany in  the  enterpx-ise,  they  will  not  consent  to  any  such 
partnei'ship  with  a  foreign  company. 

2.  If  both  canals  were  constructed  and  operated  on  the  same 
tariff  schedule,  the  Panama  would  secure  only  the  traffic  to  and 
from  South  American  ports  between  Valparaiso  and  Panama, 
and  Nicaragua  would  secure  all  the  rest,  nearly  three-fourths. 
Therefore : 

3.  It  would  be  financially  disastrous  to  construct  and  operate 
a  canal  at  Panama  in  comi^etition  with  the  United  States.  Tiiis 
is  so  obvious  that  funds  to  construct  a  competing  canal  could 
never  be  raised. 

Therefore,  it  behooves  the  Panama  Canal  Company  to  place  a 
price  on  its  work.s,  such  that  the  American  Government  can 
afford,  economically,  to  pay,  and  then  complete  the  Panama 
Canal.  Otherwise,  the  Nicaragua  Canal  will  be  built,  and  the 
work  now  accomplished  at  Panama  will  be  a  dead  loss. — Arthur 
P.  Davis:  The  Fonim,  30,  544. 

In  every  composition,  it  is  important  to  see  that  your 
work  is  finished,  that  your  reader  has  nothing  more  to 
expect  from  you;  and  to  see  also  that  you  do  not  weaken 
your  effect  by  wearying  your  reader  with  trivial  remarks — 
that  you  observe  the  principle  of  climax. 

Exercise  XXI 

A.  To  study  coherence  of  arrangement  in  the  whole 
composition,  outline  the  first  ten  pages  of  Burke's  Specf// 
on  ConciUation;  the  second  chapter  of  Southey's  Life 
of  Nelson;  the  first  chapter  of  Scott's  Woodstock. 


354  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

B.  Illustrate  the  principle  of  rhetorical  coherence  from 
a  chapter  of  the  book  yon  are  reading  in  the  class  in 
English  literature.  What  means  of  linking  paragraphs 
do  you  find  besides  those  mentioned  in  the  text? 

C.  Criticise  the  coherence  of  the  following  themes. 
Eewrite  them  in  coherent  form : 

1.  PUBLIC   SPEAKING   SHOULD  BE  MADE  COMPULSORY 

So  many  have  doubted  the  advisability  of  making  public 
speaking  compulsory  that  I  will  give  here  a  few  arguments  in  its 
favor  and  against  it.  As  to  the  stand  I  myself  take,  I  shall  leave 
the  reader  to  determine  for  himself. 

That  public  sjaeaking  in  itself  is  a  good  course,  I  think  no  one 
will  doubt,  for  surely  the  college  man  should  have  the  chance  to 
become  a  speaker  if  he  wishes.  And  this  leads  up  to  the  fact  I 
am  going  to  discuss.  Should  this  study,  or  may  we  not  even 
call  it  a  pleasure,  be  made  compulsory? 

A  man  says  to  you:  "Why  should  I  have  to  take  public  speak- 
ing? I  am  interested  in  the  sciences  and  never  intend  to  make  a 
speech."  Perhaps  he  does  not  intend  ever  to  make  a  speech, 
but  if  he  ever  wants  to  tell  an  audience  the  result  of  some  scien- 
tific experiment,  without  this  training  he  will  be  utterly  at  a  loss 
to  know  how  to  begin,  to  end,  or  even  to  stand  before  an  audi- 
ence. Unless  he  is  a  very  self-possessed  man,  he  will  be  fright- 
ened to  death  even  to  look  an  audience  in  the  face.  I  believe 
that  when  a  man  is  in  this  condition,  he  is  said  to  be  stage- 
struck.  The  man  who  said  that  many  a  fine  thought  was  lost  to 
the  world  because  the  man  who  had  it  couldn't  make  it  known, 
hit  the  nail  on  the  head.  Now,  if  the  man  who  dislikes  it  is  not 
forced  to  take  that  work,  he  never  will.  But  to  the  man  who 
would  choose  it  in  any  case,  it  matters  nothing  whether  it  is 
compulsory  or  not. 

Then,  again,  a  student  may  say:  "Public  speaking  is  a  bore, 
and  though  I  don't  actually  dislike  it,  it  takes  up  three  or  four 
valuable  hours  a  week.  Besides  I  can't  learn  a  piece  and 
then  speak  it  like  a  child."  He  says  it  is  a  bore.  I  thought  so, 
too,  at  the  first  lesson.  Then  I  took  a  mild  interest  in  it,  and 
now  I  look  forward  eagerly  to  each  recitation.  And  I  venture 
to  say  the  whiner  will  come  to  my  way  of  thinking  before  he 
has  had  four  lessons.  Then  he  says  he  can't  commit  a  sliort 
selection  to  memory.     Well,  then,  this  course  is  just  the  one  he 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF  THE   WHOLE    COMPOSITION      355 

should  take.  He  should  without  delay  learn  to  commit  pieces  of 
literature  to  memory.  And  will  he  do  this  work  unless  he  is 
forced  to?  No,  he  will  not.  He  says  he  will,  but  something 
will  always  hinder  him.  Then  again  he  says  it  takes  up  too 
much  valuable  time.  To  be  sui'e  it  takes  up  three  or  four  hours 
a  week.  But  in  what  better  way  could  three  or  four  hours  be 
spent? 

Besides  these  things,  it  gives  one  a  better  command  of  the 
English  language.  After  a  while,  words  come  to  one's  mind 
without  the  least  thought,  and  the  speaker  becomes  very  fluent. 
Public  speaking  also  gives  a  man  the  greatest  confidence  in  him- 
self. For  instance,  if  a  man  is  called  upon  to  make  an  after  din- 
ner imj^romptu  speech,  and  has  not  been  trained  in  this  direction, 
he  will  flounder  around  and  say  nothing.  How  embarrassing  that 
would  be! 

Therefoi-e,  from  these  things  here  stated,  I  consider  that  I 
have  proved  without  doubt  that  it  is  the  best  thing  possible  to 
make  pviblic  speaking  a  compulsory  study. 

2.  A  COLLEGE   ROOM 

I  had  the  pleasure  the  other  afternoon  of  visiting  a  college 
room.  It  was  a  large  front  room,  well  lighted  and  facing  west, 
and  opened  on  the  north  side  into  an  alcove  which  was  used  for 
a  bedroom. 

The  first  thing  I  noticed  as  I  entered  the  room  was  the 
predominance  of  maroon-colored  furnishings,  and  its  crowded 
condition.     Every  nook  and  corner  had  something  in  it. 

The  windows  were  all  draped  in  maroon  curtains  worked  with 
a  large  C.  Fastened  to  these  curtains  were  souvenir  badges  of 
last  year's  football  games.  Besides  these  curtains,  maroon  pen- 
nants and  banners  hung  from  every  conceivable  place,  and 
maroon  cushions  filled  every  chair. 

In  tlie  center  of  the  room  was  a  study-table,  vipon  which  was 
a  student-lamp,  school-books,  and  a  jar  of  tobacco  and  a  meer- 
schaum pipe.  Beside  the  table  was  a  large,  comfortable  armchair 
and  foot-rest  combined. 

Tacked  upon  the  walls  were  pictures  of  the  various  football 
and  glee  and  mandolin  clubs.  Thei'e  were  also  numerous  news- 
paper likenesses  of  individual  players.  The  mantelpiece  over  the 
fireplace  on  the  south  side  of  the  room  was  filled  with  souvenirs 
the  student  had  picked  up.  Two  silver  cups,  trophies  of  athletic 
victories,  stood  on  the  mantel. 


350  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Between  the  two  front  windows  was  a  lounge,  a  "bronco"  as 
the  owner  calls  it.-  This  piece  of  furniture  is  so  built  that  if  a 
person  sits  on  either  end  of  it,  that  end  will  sink  and  spill  him 
on  the  floor.     This  causes  much  amusement. 

A  neat  and  ingenious  method  of  displaying  photographs  was 
used  in  this  room.  Suspended  from  the  ceiling  and  running 
around  the  four  walls,  was  a  large  net,  something  like  a  tennis 
net.  Fastened  to  this  in  a  haphazard  way  were  pictures  of  fair 
young  ladies.  The  mirror  of  the  dresser  was  fringed  with 
small-sized  likenesses  of  his  friends. 

One  side  of  the  room  is  papered  with  posters,  that  is,  with 
fancy  covers  of  different  publications.  Boxing-gloves,  dumb- 
bells, a  tennis-racket,  and  skates  are  hung  on  the  other  walls. 

The  only  drawback  to  the  otherwise  pleasant  room  is  the 
tobacco-laden  atmosphere. 

D.  Point  out  the  j)arts  of  the  theme  on  pp.  3G8,  369 
which  injure  the  proportion.  How  Avould  you  recast  the 
theme? 

E.  Examine  Chapter  XI  of  Scott's  Woodstock  for  pro- 
portion. What  digressions  do  you  find  in  Chapters  I  and 
VIII  of  George  Eliot's  Silas  Marner? 

F.  Criticise  these  opening  paragraphs  of  themes: 

1.  [A  theme  of  three  pages,  entitled  "A  Trip  to  Milwaukee."] 
Four  of  us  who  had  just  finished  the  June  examinations  were 
going  to  stay  in  the  city  for  a  few  days  and  have  a  good  time 
before  separating  for  our  summer  vacation.  We  were  ready  for 
anything  in  the  way  of  pleasure.  Books  had  no  claim  on  us, 
and  we  could  play  tennis  or  go  bicycling  at  any  time  or  for  any 
length  of  time.  Among  other  amusements  suggested  was  a 
day's  trip  to  Milwaukee.  All  jumped  at  the  suggestion,  and  the 
subject  was  carefully  discussed  from  four  sides.  As  we  girls 
had  never  before  been  on  the  water  longer  than  a  few  hours  at  a 
time,  to  spend  a,  whole  day  on  Lake  Michigan  was  something 
new,  and  we  looked  forward  to  the  outing  with  great  expecta- 
tion. The  state  of  the  weather  was  a  question  which  needed 
some  discussion ;  if  the  lake  were  rough,  should  we  get  seasick 
or  not?  The  men  took  delight  in  assuring  us  that  in  case  the 
lake  were  rough,  as  it  probably  would  be  on  account  of  recent 
high  winds,  we  sliould  undoubtedl}'  liav«!  the  experience  of  sea- 
sickness. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    "WHOLE    COMPOSITION"      357 

2.  [A  theme  of  three  pages,  entitled  "The  Household  of  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley.""] 

When  we  read  the  history  of  past  ages  and  past  genei-ations, 
we  are  surprised  and  shocked  at  the  manner  in  which  the 
ancients  treated  their  servants.  The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
held  the  idea  that  slaves  wei-e  inferior  to  their  masters  and  that 
masters  could  do  as  they  pleased  witli  their  servants,  even  to  the 
extent  of  killing  them.  We  all  know  how  the  servile  uprisings 
of  Rome  were  suppressed,  and  how  barbarously  the  leaders  were 
punished.  Likewise,  in  all  ages  we  can  find  many  instances  of 
ill-treatment  of  servants  by  masters ;  even  our  own  country  is 
not  exempt. 

•But  as  we  look  back  we  jjlaiuly  see  that  servants  are  being 
treated  better  and  better  as  the  years  roll  by;  now  no  one  would 
think  of  abusing  a  servant. 

In  the  time  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  however,  things  wei'e 
different;  masters  treated  servants  shamefully,  and  servants 
could  get  no  redress.  For  this  reason  we  must  look  on  a  man 
who  loved  his  servants  at  that  time  as  a  man  advanced  in  civili- 
zation beyond  his  age. 

3.  [A  theme  of  four  pages,  entitled  "An  Experience."] 

The  worst  experience  that  has  ever  befallen  me,  I  think,  is  the 
fact  that  I  am  obliged  to  write  upon  such  a  broad  subject  as  I  am 
now  going  to  undertake. 

I  have  already  realized  the  difficulty  in  writing  this  theme, 
for  I  rack  my  brains  and  set  them  in  a  whirl  trying  to  think  up 
something  that  has  happened  to  me  within  my  memory.  I  have 
almost  made  myself  believe  that  I  have  been  through  fires, 
floods,  cyclones,  and  every  other  conceivable  disaster  that 
could  look  well  in  black  and  white.  But  such  would  never  do, 
I  fear. 

Perhaps  I  will  tell  you  all  about  a  little  experience,  not  thrill- 
ing, which  my  sister  and  I  had  one  summer  when  we  were  in 
Michigan,  where  we  were  visiting  our  aunt  and  uncle. 

"Well,  girls,"  said  auntie,  when  we  had  all  pushed  back  our 
chairs  from  the  breakfast  table,  "you  may  have  the  single  buggy 
and  Prince  this  morning ;  go  where  you  please,  and  stay  as  long 
as  you  wish." 

4.  [A  theme  of  five  pages,  entitled  "Thomas  Jefferson,  Demo 
crat."] 

The  majestic  march  of  Democratic  principles  marks  the  bat- 
tle-line between  liberty  and  despotism,  between  the  rule  of  caste 


358  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETOKIC 

and  the  rule  of  man,  and  their  advocates  are  the  sentinels  upon 
the  battlements  of  reform.  This  new  order  of  things  was  fore- 
shadowed in  the  constitution  of  Clisthenes;  Savonarola  burst  the 
chains  of  tyranny  for  the  people  of  the  long-oppressed  Italy,  and 
Cromwell  led  the  English  commoners  to  conflict  and  victory. 
"Democratic  freedom,"  wailed  the  serf  from  the  gloomy  walls 
of  feudal  tyranny.  "Democratic  freedom,"  sang  the  night  wind 
through  the  Mayflower's  creaking  masts.  "Democratic  free- 
dom," belched  forth  the  cannon  from  Bunker  Hill  and  York- 
town.  When  tyranny  had  fettered  the  American  colonies, 
when  England's  avarice  had  retarded  our  progress  and  blighted 
our  commerce,  when  insult  and  added  injury  alone  responded 
to  the  appeals  of  justice,  then  arose  in  defense  of  democratic 
freedom,  simplicity,  and  integrity,  the  genius  of  his  time, 
the  sage  of  Monticello,  the  apostle  of  democracy,  Thomas 
Jefferson. 

5.  [An  introduction  to  a  Life  of  Coleridge.  ] 

Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  remax-kable 
change  began  to  take  place  in  English  poetry.  For  more  than  a 
century,  first  under  the  leadership  of  Dryden,  and  then  under 
that  of  Pope,  poets  had  striven  to  give  their  verse  formal  cor- 
rectness and  elegance  at  the  expense  of  naturalness  and  spon- 
taneity. They  had  given  up  the  free  forms  of  verse  used  by  the 
Elizabethan  poets,  and  confined  themselves  almost  entirely  to  a 
single  forni,  the  rliymed  couplet.  Subjects  of  romance  and  pas- 
sion, such  as  the  Elizabethans  had  loved,  were  discarded  for  more 
mundane  themes,  wliich  could  be  handled  with  wit  and  preci- 
sion, or  with  stately  dignity  of  manner.  But  in  the  verse  of 
Collins,  Gray,  Crabbe,  and  Burns,  there  appeared  a  strong  pro- 
test against  all  this.  Poets  began  to  reassert  tlieir  right  to 
represent  the  woi'ld  of  nature  and  men  as  they  saw  them,  full  of 
color,  mystery,  and  emotion. 


G.  AVrite    introductory    paragraphs    on    the  following 
subjects : 

1.  The  first  football  match  of  the  season. 

2.  The  necessity  of  a  standing  army. 

3.  A  good  method  of  dealing  with  the  liquor  problem. 
4    Why  English  sparrows  should  not  be  destroyed. 

5.  The  purposes  of  a  bank. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    WHOLE    COMPOSITION      359 

H.  Criticise  the  following  conclusions  for  themes : 

1.  [From  a  theme  of  four  pages  on  Quo  Vadis.} 

One  of  the  valuable  features,  but,  of  course,  secondary  to  the 
main  ideas,  is  the  information  to  be  gained  from  the  accurate 
description  of  the  social  conditions  in  Rome.  The  topography  is 
minutely  set  forth ;  the  Porta  Cappena,  the  Siibura,  the  Esqui- 
line,  all  become  familiar.  We  have  a  comprehensive  picture  of 
the  streets  and  buildings  of  Nero's  capital,  i^eopled  with  its 
various  races,  and  an  outline  of  the  daily  life  of  tlie  citizens. 
On  the  whole,  such  an  account  would  be  highly  pleasing  to  a 
person  with  an  economical  or  sociological  turn  of  mind. 

2.  [Prom  a  theme  of  four  pages,  entitled  "Six  Months  in 
Berlin.  ■■] 

But  in  spite  of  these  several  obstacles  I  passed  an  exceedingly 
interesting  time.  There  were  many  parks  within  Berlin  it.self, 
and  several  suburbs  where  the  members  of  the  royal  family 
spent  their  summers.  There  were  also  j^lenty  of  art  galleries 
and  museums,  and  we  visited  jilaces  of  historical  interest.  After 
six  months  in  Berlin  we  traveled  on  to  Pai-is,  where  we  spent 
only  two  weeks.  During  this  short  time  we  also  had  several 
very  funny  experiences. 

3.  [From  an  argument  of  eight  pages,  entitled  "What  is  the 
Most  Adequate  Theory  of  the  Cause  of  Folded  MountainsV"] 

For  several  reasons,  then,  the  contraction  theory  is  the  most 
adequate  theory  yet  offered.  In  the  first  lilace,  all  the  objec- 
tions thus  far  brought  against  it  can,  as  has  been  shown,  be 
satisfactorily  answered.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  based  on  the 
most  widely  accepted  theory  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the 
interior  of  the  earth.  Besides  this,  tlie  leading  geologists, 
althougli  they  do  not  necessarily  consider  it  the  right  theorj^ 
yet  think  it  has  the  strongest  proof  in  its  favor.  Lastly,  it  ful- 
fills the  essential  condition  of  accounting  for  all  the  present 
known  facts  about  folded  mountains. 

/.  Discuss  the  effect  of  tlie  opening  pages  of  Silas 
Marncr.  What  do  you  think  of  Scott's  opening  chapter 
in  Ivanhoe?  What  is  the  excellence  of  Macaulay's  first 
paragraph  in  his  Essay  on  Samncl  Johnson?  Select  from 
a  current  magazine  an  article  which  you  tliink  opens 
strongly,  and  explain  to  the  class  the  author's  method. 


360  COMTOSITIOX    AN'I)    RHETORIC 

-/.  What  effect  has  the  last  paragraph  in  The  House  of 
the  Seven  Gables?  Can  you  think  of  good  reasons  why 
stories  should  begin  and  end  more  directly  than  other 
forms  of  Avriting? 

K.  What  do  you  tliiuk  of  the  opening  of  The  Pilgrim''s 
Progress? 

As  I  walk"d  tlirougli  the  wilderness  of  this  world,  I  lighted  on 
a  certain  place  where  was  a  Denn,  and  I  laid  nie  down  in  that 
place  to  sleep ;  and  as  I  slept,  I  dreamed  a  Dream.  I  dreamed, 
and  behold,  I  saw  a  Man  clothed  with  Raggs,  standing  in  a  cer- 
tain place,  with  his  face  from  his  own  house,  a  Book  in  his  hand, 
and  a  great  Burden  upon  his  back.  I  looked,  and  saw  him  open 
the  Book,  and  read  therein;  and  as  he  read,  he  wept  and 
trembled ;  and  not  being  able  longer  to  contain,  he  brake  out 
with  a  lamentable  cry,  saying.  What  shall  I  doV— Bunyan:  The 
Pilgrim's  Progreas. 


PART  V 
KINDS   OF   COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER   XXII 


SUMMARIES 


159.  Many   Forms    of    the    Whole    Composition. — The 

whole  comjwsitioia  may  take  any  one  of  a  large  number 
of  forms  such  as  a  letter  (see  Chapter  VIII,  Part  I),  a  trans- 
lation (see  Chapter  XIII,  Part  II),  a  speech,  an  essay,  a 
short  story,  a  play,  a  novel,  etc.  In  each  case  the  object 
the  writer  has  in  mind  will  determine  the  form  that  his 
whole  composition  will  take.  Hitherto  in  our  study  no 
special  attention  has  been  paid  to  any  one  form  of  compo- 
sition with  tlie  exception  of  letter- writing  and  translation. 
Tlie  rhetorical  principles  discussed  in  Part  IV  apply  to  all 
whole  compositions,  no  matter  what  form  they  may  take. 
In  Part  V,  however,  we  shall  study  whole  compositions 
with  reference  to  their  forms,  and  shall  find  that  there 
are  four  general  classes  of  compositions  depending  on  the 
nature  of  the  material  used  by  the  writer.  One  method 
of  studying  the  structure  of  different  kinds  of  composition 
is  to  analyze  and  summarize  the  works  of  other  writers. 
Therefore,  we  shall  begin  with  summaries. 

160.  Definition  of  Summaries. — A  summary  (sometimes 
called  an  abstract  or  an  epitome)  is  a  condensed  state- 
ment in  one's  own  words  of  another's  thought.  The 
material,   that   is   the   thought,    belongs  to   the   author 

301 


302  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETOIIIC 

whose  work  is  summarized;  but  the  expression  of  the 
thought,  except  where  quotations  are  made,  must  be 
the  Avriter's,  not  the  author's.  The  summary  has  many 
uses  besides  the  practice  which  it  affords  in  studying 
the  structure  of  different  forms  of  composition;  thus, 
a  summary  is  often  an  important  part  of  a  book-review, 
of  a  speech,  or  of  an  editorial.  Wherever  it  is  necessary 
to  use  the  thought  of  another  in  a  brief  form,  the  sum- 
mary is  employed. 

161.  Different  Methods  of  Summarizing. — The  careless 
writer  usually  makes  a  summary  by  purloining  words, 
phrases,  or  even  whole  sentences  from  his  author,  which 
he  strings  together  without  the  use  of  quotation  marks. 
Such  a  patchwork  of  detached  extracts,  when  presented 
as  the  writer's  own  work,  is  dishonest.  Moreover,  the 
thought  of  the  author,  garbled  in  this  fashion  and  sepa- 
rated from  its  context,  is  likely  to  be  distorted  and 
unfairly  presented.  It  is  impossil^lo  to  make  in  this  way 
a  .connected,  coherent  statement  of  the  original  material, 
for  some  steps  in  the  author's  thought  are  necessarily 
dropped  out  altogether  in  order  to  shorten  the  article. 
The  "patchwork"  or  "mosaic"  method  of  summarizing 
should  be  avoided.  Another  poor  way  to  make  a  sum- 
mary is  to  condense  each  paragraph.  If  the  article  is 
short  and  composed  on  a  simple  plan,  this  mechanical 
method  may  succeed,  but  if  the  material  to  be  summarized 
is  complex,  the  suuimary  will  consist  merely  of  scraps  of 
information  that  bear  no  apparent  relation  to  one  another. 

To  summarize  an  article  properly,  it  should  be  read 
carefully  more  than  once,  until  the  student  has  mastered 
its  contents  and  is  familiar  with  its  structure.  The  next 
step  should  be  the  drawing  up  of  a  careful  outline  that 
will  represent  exactly  the  structure  of  the  origiiud.  Then 
the  scale  to  be  used  in  reducing  the  length  of  the  article 
must  be  determined,  and  the  topics  of  the  outline  simpli- 


SUMMARIES  363 

fied  to  accord  with  this  scale.  After  this  preliminary 
work  it  will  be  a  simple  matter  to  make  the  summary  a 
coherent  article,  well-proportioned  and  independent  of  the 
original  in  expression. 

The  following  summary  of  Chapter  V,  Vol.  I,  of  Mr. 
Bryce's  The  American  CommoniveaWi,  has  been  prepared 
in  this  way.  The  chapter  is  fourteen  octavo  pages  in 
length,  or  about  six  thousand  words,  and  has  been 
reduced  in  the  summary  to  about  one-tenth  of  its  original 
length.     The  outline  comes  first: 

THE    PRESIDENT 

1.  Introductory:  Of  the  three  departments  in  the  American 
Constitution,  the  Executive  is  the  simplest. 

2.  Reasons  for  establishing  the  office  of  President : 

a.  English  example. 

b.  Exam25le  drawn  from  State  executives. 

3.  Limitations  of  tlie  President's  powers 

a.  To  serve  only  four  years. 

b.  To  be  checked  by  the  Senate. 

4.  Election  of  the  President : 

a.  Original  idea  was  to  have  double  election  in  order  to 

avoid,  (x)  congressional  influence,  and  (y)  popular 
influence. 

b.  The  plan  of  the  electoral  college, — 

X.  Its  failure  to  work  as  designed, 
y.  Its  actual  liistory. 

c.  Present  working  of  the  sy.stem, — 

X.  Direct  popular  vote  for  electors. 

d.  Consequences  of  the  system  not  foreseen, — 

X.  The  President  may   be  elected   by   minority  of 

voters. 
y.  A  party  man  is  invariably  elected. 

5.  The  eligibility  of  a  President  for  reelection  not  provided 
for  by  law: 

a.  But  precedent  in  Grant's  case  settled  the  custom  of 
not  more  than  two  terms. 

6.  Provisions  in  the  Constitution  in  case  of  no  choice  in  elec- 
toral college 

a.  Only  once  has  such  a  case  occui-red. 


364  COMPOSITIOX    AND    EHETORIC 

b.  The  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate  was  to  provide  for 

this  emergency. 

c.  Congress  has  assumed  this  right. 

7.  A  serious  weakness  in  the  electoral  system : 

a.  Illustrated  by  Tilden-Hayes  election. 

8.  Impeachment  the  only  means  of  removing  a  President 
from  oflSce: 

a.  Andrew  Johnson  is  the  only  case. 

9.  Succession  to  the  office  in  case  of  death  or  removal  of  Vice- 
President  : 

a.  Former  plan. 

b.  Since  1886  a  new  plan. 

c.  Practically   little    pains  taken     in    choice    of    Vice- 

President. 

Evidently  the  summary  mu.st  contain  something  about 
every  one  of  these  nine  divisions.  In  reducing  tlie  scale 
of  the  article,  however,  a  numher  of  the  divisions  may  be 
united,  and  the  order  may  be  changed.  After  examining 
the  outline,  this  simpler  plan  is  drawn  up  for  a  brief  sum- 
mary: 

1.  The  origin  of  the  executive  office  in  the  American  Consti- 
tution. 

2.  The  system  of  electing  the  Pi'esident: 

a.  As  originally  designed. 

b.  As  it  has  resulted  in  practice. 

3.  Provisions  for: 

a.  Reeligibilitj% 

b.  Impeachment,  and 

c.  Succession  in  case  of  death. 

This  outline  is  prepared  for  a  summary  of  three  para- 
graphs, wliicli  will  represent  the  three  important  tlivi- 
sious  of  the  material  in  the  chapter. 

162.  Proportion  Must  Be  Observed. — The  outline  will 
be  helpful  in  keeping  a  due  proportion  in  the  treatment 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  matter  to  be  summarized. 
There  is  always  a  danger  that  the  first  part  of  the  sum- 
mary will  be  made  minutely  and  at  great  length,  to  the 
neglect  of  the  remainder.     To  preserve  due  proportion, 


SUMMARIES  365 

it  is  well  to  note  exactly  what  space  the  author  gives  to 
different  sections  of  his  material.  Mr.  Bryce,  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  chapter  on  the  Executive,  gave  about  two 
pages  to  the  topic  tliat  forms  the  first  section  of  the 
second  outline;  five  pages  to  the  subject  of  the  second 
section ;  and  over  six  pages  to  that  of  the  last  part.  '  This 
scale  of  two,  five,  and  six  must  be  observed  as  closely  as 
possible  in  condensing  the  chapter. 
The  summary  in  full  follows : 

The  office  of  Presirlent  was  created  by  the  Constitution  of 
1789.  The  idea  of  having  a  single  head  to  the  United  States  was 
suggested  to  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  by  the  example  of 
the  monarch  in  the  English  nation,  but  much  more  by  the  sys- 
tem of  State  executives  in  the  commonwealths.  The  aim  was 
to  have  as  chief  executive  a  man  of  prominence,  whose  powers 
were  restricted,  and  whose  office  should  be  independent  of  the 
legislative  branches. 

For  this  reason,  the  Constitution  provided  for  a  method  of 
election  of  the  President  bj'  an  indirect  choice  by  the  people. 
The  States  were  to  choose  electors,  who  should  exercise  freedom 
in  selecting  a  President.  Thus  tlie  President,  it  was  thought, 
would  not  be  "the  creature  of  congress,"  or  a  party  man.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  after  the  first  two  elections,  every 
election  has  been  conducted  on  party  lines.  The  electors  have 
been  pledged  to  vote  for  a  certain  candidate,  and  this  pledge  has 
never  been  broken.  Moreover,  the  States,  wliich  select  the  elec- 
tors, have  now  instituted  popular  elections  instead  of  choice  by 
the  legislatures,  thus  rendering  the  Electoral  College  a  mere 
figurehead.  Another  resvilt  unforeseen  by  the  framei's  of  the 
Constitution,  has  been  that  the  election  of  the  President  has 
become  an  election  bj-  States ;  for  the  present  system  of  choosing 
electors  by  "general  ticket''  causes  the  whole  number  of  electors 
of  one  party  to  be  elected.  In  this  way  a  President  may  be,  and 
in  one  notable  case  has  been,  elected  by  an  actual  minority  of 
the  voters. 

Although  the  Constitution  contains  nothing  about  the 
reeligibility  of  a  President,  yet,  after  the  failure  of  tlie  popular 
hero  Grant  to  get  a  third  nomination,  custom  may  be  said  to  be 
firmly  opposed  to  more  than  two  terms.  In  cases  of  disputed 
election,  in  which  a  majority  of    the  electors  has  not   been 


306  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

obtained  for  one  candidate,  the  choice  goes  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, where  the  vote  is  taken  1^3-  States.  The  decision  is 
inade  on  party  lines.  The  most  celebrated  case  of  this  kind  was 
in  the  election  of  Hayes,  which  was  ultimately  settled  by  a  par- 
tisan vote  of  an  electoral  commission  ci'eated  for  the  purpose 
Since  that  time  a  device  has  been  found  for  remedying  this  diffi- 
culty. A  President  once  elected  is  removable  only  by  means  of 
impeachment  by  the  House — a  measure  attempted  unsuccess- 
fully once.  Succession  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  President  falls 
upon  the  Vice-President — in  selecting  whom  little  care  is  taken — 
and  in  the  event  of  his  death,  succession  is  now  regulated  by  a 
statute  passed  in  1886  to  fall  to  tlie  Secretary  of  State,  and  after 
him  to  other  officers  of  the  administration. 

163.  Style. — It  has  been  shown  in  a  former  section  why 
tlio  writer  of  a  summary  sliould  not  use  the  author's  stylo. 
Naturally,  some  phrases,  sentences,  or  even  whole  pas- 
sages, may  best  be  transcribed  from  the  original.  But 
they  should  be  quoted^  not  borrowed  without  acknowledg- 
ment. In  every  case  where  more  than  three  successive 
words  are  taken  from  another's  writing,  quotation  marks 
should  be  used.  Not  to  give  the  author  credit  for  his 
Avork  is  dishonest,  or  at  least  culpably  careless.  AVheu 
we  scrupulously  indicate  all  that  we  borrow,  we  shall  be 
less  ready  to  take  every  other  phrase.  The  best  Avay  to 
avoid  borrowing  is  not  to  refer  to  the  original  while  fill- 
ing out  the  outline.  Afterwards,  it  Avill  be  well  to  com- 
pare the  two  to  see  that  nothing  important  has  been 
slighted.  We  must  take  pains,  also,  to  be  thoroughly 
fair  to  the  author  in  representing  his  thoughts.  It 
should  make  no  difference  what  our  opinion  of  the 
author's  views  may  bo;  we  must  do  justice  to  his  thought 
as  a  whole,  not  to  our  own  feeling  about  it.  In  stylo, 
therefore,  the  ideal  summary  is  to  a  large  extent  an  imper- 
sonal transcript,  uncolorod  by  the  writer's  opinions. 

164.  Summaries  of  Novels  and  Plays. — So  far,  it  has 
been  assumed  that  the  order  of  the  summary  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  material  to  be  c  >ndeii3ed.     Wliere 


SUMMARIES  367 

an  entire  book  is  to  be  summarized^  liowever,  and 
especially  in  the  case  of  long  narratives,  the  method  of 
the  author  can  not  always  be  followed  with  success.  In  a 
novel,  for  example,  the  story  is  told  by  separate  incidents, 
by  conversations,  and  by  descriptions,  not  all  of  which  we 
need  in  the  summary.  Hence  it  is  well  to  adopt  some 
simpler,  more  direct  plan  for  giving  the  necessary  facts. 
A  good  method  is  first  to  describe  the  characters  briefly, 
then  to  give  the  events  (or  plot)  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  order  of  their  happening.  Another  plan  is  to  give  a 
synopsis  of  the  principal  scones,  beginning  with  some 
important  one  and  grouping  the  necessary  facts  about 
this  center.  Whatever  plan  is  adopted,  the  summary 
should  not  be  interrupted  by  criticism  or  comment. 

Exercise  XXII 

A.  What  criticisms  can  you  make  upon  the  following 
summaries? 

1.  THE  MERCHANT   OF  VENICE 

Portia,  one  of  the  loveliest  characters  in  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  has  suitors  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  who  are  asking 
for  her  hand.  There  is  Bassanio,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  the 
Prince  of  Morocco,  the  English  lord,  and  the  Frenchman.  It  is 
with-  great  fun  and  jest  that  she  speaks  of  these  suitors  to 
Nerissa,  her  waiting  maid.  Slie  is  bound  by  the  will  of  her 
father,  so  that  it  is  only  by  choosing  the  right  casket  that  the 
fortunate  one  may  obtain  her  hand. 

It  is  with-  great  joy  that  she  receives  Bassanio,  whom  she 
would  most  wish  to  marry  among  the  many  that  admire  her. 

Bassanio  must  try  the  caskets  of  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  and  by 
clioosing  the  one  containing  her  picture  he  will  receive  her  con- 
sent to  wed  her. 

Bassanio  reads  the  inscriptions  written  on  the  various  caskets, 
and  when  he  comes  to  the  leaden  one  he  is  in  doubt  whether  to 
open  it  or  not,  for  he  considers  the  metal  too  base  for  such  a 


»  A  task  ordinarily  to  be  avoided  by  the  student.    See  section  10,  Part  L 
*  What  is  the  objection  to  this  phrase? 


368  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

treasure.     He  opens  it  to  find  with  a  happy  heart  the  portrait  of 
Portia  thex*ein. 

No  sooner  does  he  feel  the  joy  of  his  success  than  he  must 
leave  her.     It  is  with  many  vows  of  love  and  kisses  that  they  ■ 
part       Portia  tells  him  she  will  spend  the    time  during  his 
absence  in  prayer  and  holy  meditation. 

We  see  her  later  in  the  play  attii'ed  in  cap  and  gown  as  a 
learned  doctor  of  Padua.  She  is  attended  by  Nerissa,  who  is 
dressed  as  a  young  page.  It  is  in  the  trial  that  Portia  tries  to 
convince  the  avaricious  and  revengeful  Shylock  that  mercy  is 
higher  than  justice;  she  even  goes  so  far  as  to  tell  him  that  it  is 
an  attribute  of  God  liimself.  She  reads  portions  of  the  law  to 
him,  but  it  is  of  no  avail;  justice  is  his  jjlea. 

Then  follows  the  entertaining  and  pretty  episode  of  the  ring. 
Bassanio  parts  with  his  ring.  After  some  eluding  on  the  part  of 
Portia,  he  explains  it  all  to  her  and  they  become  good  friends, 
again  promising  never  to  part  with  their  rings. 

2.  THE  MERCHANT   OF^VENICE 

"In  Belmont  is  a  lady  richly  left,"'  said  Bassanio  to  his  friend 
"and  she  is  fair,  and  fairer  than  that  word."  No  wonder  that 
the  four  winds  blow  in,  from  every  corner  of  the  earth,  princely 
suitors  who  surround  this  fair  lady  and  fill  her  ears  with  vows 
of  love  and  constancy.  There  is  the  Frenchman,  with  his  horse, 
better  than  that  of  anyone  else ;  the  Englishman,  who  borrowed 
one  piece  of  clothing  from  every  country  he  passed  through  on 
his  journej' to  Belmont,  and  his  manners  everywhere;  there  is 
the  German  prince,  the  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  who  is 
".very  vile  in  tlie  morning,  wlien  lie  is  sobei',  and  most  vile  in 
the  afternoon,  when  he  is  drunk'' ;  there  is  Aragon,  and  Morocco, 
who  tells  of  liis  deeds  and  of  his  native  country  and  his  wealth, 
to  off.set  any  repugnance  that  may  be  called  forth  by  his  com- 
plexion. But  of  all  these  none  has  won  the  heart  of  the  fair 
Portia,  who,  alas,  can  do  no  more  than  lead  each  in  his  turn  to 
the  caskets  (if  he  have  the  coui-age),  and  tell  him:  'If  my  form 
lie  there,  I  am  yours  withal,"  and  pray  that  he  may  choose  the 
"contrary  casket." 

But  Ar '^„.o  supplies  Bassanio's  needs,  and  lie  arrives  at  Bel- 
mont to  press  his  suit.  Of  all  the  men  Portia  lias  yet  laid  eyes 
upon,  he  is  most  worthy  of  the  hand  of  a  fair  lady.  He  is 
received  and  treated  with  distinction;  so  agreeable  does  it  seem 
to  Portia  to  have  near  her  one  she  does  not  shrink  from  that  she 


SUMMAKIES  369 

would  fain  detain  him  some  weeks  before  permitting  him  to  go 
to  his  clioice,  for  she  hopes  that  by  a  stay  of  some  lengtli  lie  maj- 
perchance  learn  how  to  choose  aright. 

But  Bassanio  will  lose  no  time.  He  must  kno\\-  immediately 
whether  he  is  to  be  happy;  moreover,  lie  is  quite  confident:  "I 
have  a  mind,"  he  said  to  Antonio,  "presages  me  such  thrift,  that 
I  should  questionless  be  fortvmate. "  "While  Poi'tia  observes  Bas- 
sanio making  his  choice,  she  is  moved  by  fears  of  an  entirely 
different  nature  from  those  which  disturbed  her  when  Aragon 
and  Morocco  stood  before  the  caskets.  The  noble  Venetian  is 
willing  to  "give  and  hazard  all  he  hath,"  and  Portia's  fears  are 
allayed  wlien  he  reads  his  scroll,  "Since  this  fortune  falls  to  you, 
be  content  and  seek  no  new,"  and  turns,  in  obedience  to  its 
instructions,  to  "claim  her  with  a  loving  kiss."' 

But,  alas!  although  he  has  won  his  fair  lady,  he  must  hasten 
back  to  Venice,  for  the  munificent  friend  to  whose  assistance  he 
owes  his  all,  is  in  sore  distress.  And  now,  for  the  first  time  in 
the  play,  the  strength  of  Portia's  character  is  shown.  Duty  calls 
her  husband,  and  she  hastens  him  on  his  way,  though  the  part- 
ing is  no  less  a  sorrow  to  her  than  to  him.  There  is  no  whining, 
no  weakening  or  breaking  down  over  the  .separation ;  a  friend  is 
to  be  rescued;  she  forgets  herself  and  thinks  only  of  the  danger 
of  Antonio. 

The  trial  is  the  climax  of  the  whole  pla}^  Shylock  shows 
himself  in  all  his  meanness,  and  does  not  even  attempt  to  con- 
ceal a  bit  of  it ;  his  soul  is  filled  with  but  one  desii'e,  his  mind  is 
fixed  on  one  object,  every  nerve  and  every  muscle  ready  for  one 
task — to  have  revenge.  Portia  rises  superior  to  all  obstacles, 
master  of  every  .situation.  She  is  firm,  but  it  is  not  the  firmness  of 
which  the  Murdstones  speak  so  mucii ;  it  is  the  all-powerful  con- 
viction that  Right,  Truth,  and  Goodness  must  conquer,  and  the 
stern  resolution  that  they  shall  conquer. 

3.  THE  STORY   OP  SILAS  StARXER 

Silas  Marner,  the  weaver  of  Raveloe,  was  a  man  who  had  seen 
much  trouble.  When  he  had  his  gold  he  was  liappy,  for  he 
counted  it  over  every  night,  and  it  was  like  a  fi'iend  to  liim. 
Indeed,  he  had  very  few  other  fi-iends,  for  the  people  of  the  vil- 
lage were  never  very  friendly,  probably  because  he  seemed 
always  rather  cold  and  distant  to  them.  So  when  he  lost  his 
gold,  he  was  quite  alone,  and  lost  also  his  faith  in  God  and  man. 
For  this  was  not  the  first  time  trouble  had  come  to  him.     I  for- 


370  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC 

got  to  say  that  before  he  came  to  Raveloe  he  lived  in  a  place 
called  Lantern  Yard,  and  there  he  had  anotlier  sorrow.  A  friend 
betravet^  nim  and  stole  some  money  that  Silas  had  in  charge,  and 
then  made  everybody  believe  that  Silas  had  stolen  it.  So  Silas 
had  to  leave  the  place.  Besides,  the  woman  he  was  engaged  to 
broke  her  engagement  to  him,  and  his  nature  became  embit- 
tered. In  Raveloe  he  spent  all  his  time  weaving,  until  Dunstan 
Cass  stole  his  money.  (Nobody  knew  at  the  time  that  it  was 
Dunstan ;  they  found  it  out  many  years  later  when  Dunstan's 
body  was  found  in  the  old  stone  pit.)  Then  he  became  harder 
and  colder  than  ever,  but  soon  Eppie  came  to  gladden  his  life 
with  her  merry,  childish  prattle.  When  he  first  saw  her  yellow 
curls,  he  thouglit  it  was  his  gold  come  back  to  him.  She 
brought  new  love  and  hope  into  his  life,  and  it  was  a  proud 
moment  for  him  when,  although  she  discovered  that  Godfrey, 
the  'Squire's  son,  was  her  own  father,  she  chose  to  stay  with 
Silas. 

The  punishment  of  sin  is  well  shown  in  the  case  of  Godfrey. 
The  sketches  of  the  village  characters  a;-e  very  amusing. 

4.  THE   FLIGHT   OF   A  TARTAR  TRIBE 

Oubacha  was  the  prince  of  the  Tartar  Tribe  about  which  De 
Quincey  tells  us.  But  Zebek  Dorchi,  a  relation  of  his,  was  jeal- 
ous of  liim,  and  indeed  he  had  as  good  a  right  to  the  headship  of 
the  tribe  as  Oubacha.  So  Zebek  Dorchi  made  plots  and  got  him- 
self elected  head  of  the  council  and  worked  very  skillfudy  and 
secretly. 

When  the  tribe  .started  to  flee  to  China,  their  enemies  heard 
of  it  and  pursued  them.  Tlie  flight  was  a  terrible  experience. 
There  were  many  hundreds  of  people,  including  women  and 
cliildren,  and  they  had  to  go  through  deserts  where  there  was 
little  or  no  water,  and  ride  very  fast,  because  their  enemies  were 
close  behind  them. 

Finally  they  came  to  the  borders  of  Lake  Tengis,  which  was 
in  the  dominions  of  the  Emperor  of  China.  They  had  been  for  a 
long  while  without  water  and  were  almost  exhausted,  so  tliey  all 
rushed  into  the  water,  horses  and  all,  to  drink.  Meanwhile, 
tlieir  pursuers  came  up  to  them  and  rushing  into  the  water  killed 
them  right  and  left,  until  the  lake  was  red  with  blood  and  they 
could  not  drink  the  water  any  more. 

By  this  time  some  troops  of  the  Chinese  Emperor  came  up  and 
drove  olf  tlie  Khirgishes,  and  the  Emperor  let  the  Kalmucks  stay 


SUMMARIES  Stl 

in  his  dominions.     Zebek  Dorchi  lived  only  about  a  year  after 
tl.is. 

B.  Draw  np  a  plan  for  summarizing:  > 
1.  The  first  live  chapters  of  Silas  Marner. 

2  The  third  act  of  The  Merchant  of  Venice. 

3.  As  You  Like  It. 

4.  The  capture  of  the  manor  in  Woodstock. 

5.  Chapter  IX,  Vol.  I,  of  Bryce's  The  American  Common- 
loealth. 

6.  The  first  book  of  Paradise  Lost. 

7.  The  first,  second,  or  seventh  book  of  the  jEneid. 

8.  The  French  story  you  are  reading  in  class. 

9.  A  chapter  in  the  text-book  of  history. 
10.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

C.  Summarize  the  first  chapter  of  Tlie  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  in  three  or  four  paragraphs.  Draw  up  a 
plan  for  a  summary  of  the  whole  story. 

D.  Tell  the  story  of  Treasure  Island  (or  some  other 
story  of  adventure)  in  about  eight  hundred  words, 
according  to  the  first  plan  suggested  in  section  IG'2. 

E.  Relate  the  best  short  story  that  you  know,  begin- 
ning with  an  account  of  the  most  interesting  character. 

F.  What  are  the  good  qualities  of  the  following  sum- 
mary, which  Stevenson  prefixed  to  the  sequel  of  Kid- 
oiapped? 

Alexander  and  Ebenezev  Balfour,  brothers,  of  the  house  of 
Shaws  near  Cramond  in  the  Forest  of  Ettrick,  being  in  love  with 
the  same  lady,  and  she  preferring  the  elder  brother,  Alexander, 
it  was  agreed  between  them  that  Alexander  should  take  the 
lady,  and  Ebenezer,  as  amends  for  his  disappointment,  the  estate 
of  Shaws.  Alexander  and  his  wife  removed  to  Essendean,  where 
they  lived  obscurely,  Alexander  in  the  character  of  village 
schoolmaster,  and  where  an  only  son  was  born  to  them,  namely, 
David  Balfour,  the  hero  of  this  history.  David,  brought  up  in 
ignorance  of  the  family  affairs  and  of  his  own  claim  on  the 
estates,  and  losing  both  jjarents  before  he  was  eighteen,  was  left 
with  no  other  fortune  than  a  sealed  letter  from  his  father 
addressed  to  his  uncle  Ebenezer,  which  was  banded  him  by  the 


373  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

minister  of  Essendean,  Mr.  Campbell.  Proceeding  to  deliver  it, 
David  found  his  uncle  living  childless  and  a  miser  at  Shaws; 
who  received  him  ill,  and  after  vainly  endeavoring  to  compass 
his  death,  had  him  treijanned  on  board  the  brig  Covenant,  Cap- 
tain Hoseason,  bound  to  Carolina,  to  the  end  that  he  might  be 
sold  to  labor  in  the  plantations.  But  early  in  the  voyage,  the 
Covenant,  running  through  the  Minch,  struck  and  sent  to  the 
bottom  an  open  boat,  from  which  there  saved  himself  and 
came  on  board  one  Alan  Breck  Stewart,  a  Highland  gentleman 
banished  after  the  '45,  and  now  engaged  in  smuggling  rents  from 
his  clansmen,  the  Appin  Stewarts,  to  their  chief  Ardshiel,  living 
in  exile  in  France.  Hoseason  and  his  crew,  learning  that  Alan 
had  gold  about  him,  conspired  to  rob  and  murder  him ;  but 
David,  being  made  privy  to  the  jjlot,  put  Alan  on  his  guard  and 
promised  to  stand  by  him. 

Favored  by  the  shelter  of  the  rounilhouse,  and  by  Alan's  cour- 
age and  skill  of  fence,  the  two  got  the  better  of  their  assailants 
in  the  attack  which  followed,  killing  or  maiming  more  than  half 
of  them;  whereby  Captain  Hoseason  was  disabled  from  prose- 
cuting his  voyage,  and  came  to  terms  with  Alan,  agreeing  to 
land  him  on  a  part  of  the  coast  whence  he  might  best  make  his 
way  to  his  own  country  of  Appin.  But  in  attempting  this  the 
Covenant  took  ground  and  sank  off  the  coast  of  Mull.  Those  on 
board  saved  themselves  as  they  best  could,  David  separately; 
being  first  cast  on  the  Isle  of  Earraid,  and  thence  making  his 
way  across  !Mull.  Alan  ha<l  passed  before  by  the  same  road,  and 
left  word  that  David  shoidd  follow  and  rejoin  him  in  his  own 
country  at  the  house  of  his  kinsman,  James  Stewart  of  the 
Glens.  On  his  way  to  keep  his  tryst,  David  found  himself  in 
Appin  on  the  same  day  when  the  King's  Factor,  Colin  Roy 
Campbell  of  Glenure,  came  with  a  force  of  red-coats  to  drive 
out  the  tenants  from  the  forfeited  estates  of  Ardshiel,  and  was 
present  when  Glenure  was  slain  upon  the  roadside  by  a  shot  out 
of  a  neighboring  wood.  Suspected  of  complicity  at  the  moment 
when  he  was  in  the  act  of  giving  chase  to  the  unknown  mur- 
derer, David  betook  himself  to  iliglit,  and  was  (piickly  joined  by 
Alan  Breck,  who,  though  he  had  not  fired  the  sliot,  was  lurking 
not  far  off.  Tiie  two  now  lived  the  life  of  hunted  men  upon  the 
moors,  the  outcry  on  account  of  the  murder  being  very  great, 
and  its  guilt  being  declared  to  rest  on  James  Stewart  of  the 
Glens,  the  already  outlawed  Alan  Breck,  and  a  lad  unknown, 
being  no  other  than  David  Balfour;    for  whose   apprehension 


SUMMARIES  373 

blood-money  was  offered  and  the  country  scoured  by  soldiery. 
In  the  course  of  their  wanderings,  David  and  Alan  visited  James 
Stewart  at  Aucharn,  were  concealed  in  Cluny  Macpherson's 
cage,  and  suffered  to  rest  during  sickness  in  the  house  of  Duncan 
Dhu  Maclaren  in  Balwhidder,  where  Alan  played  a  match  upon 
the  pipes  against  Robin  Oig,  the  son  of  Rob  Roy.  At  last,  after 
much  peril  and  suffering,  they  made  their  way  down  to  the 
Highland  line  and  the  Forth ;  A\'hich,  however,  they  dared  not 
cross  for  fear  of  arrest  until  the  innkeeper's  davighter  of  Lime- 
kilns, Alison  Hastie,  was  prevailed  on  to  row  them  over  to  the 
Lothian  shore  under  cover  of  night.  Here  Alan  again  went  into 
hiding,  while  David  made  himself  known  to  Mr.  Hope  of 
Rankeillor,  lawyer  and  lately  agent  to  the  Shaws'  estate,  who 
promptly  took  up  his  cause  and  contrived  a  plan  whereby,  with 
the  help  of  Alan,  Ebenezer  Balfour  was  compelled  to  recognize 
his  nephew's  title  as  heir  to  the  estate,  and  in  the  meantime  to 
make  him  a  suitable  allowance  from  its  income. 

David  Balfour,  having  thus  come  to  his  own,  proposes  to  go 
and  complete  his  education  at  the  University  of  Ley  den ;  but 
must  first  satisfy  the  claims  of  friendship,  by  helping  Alan  out 
of  Scotland,  and  of  conscience,  by  testifying  to  the  innocence  of 
James  Stewart  of  the  Glens,  now  a  prisoner  awaiting  his  trial  for 
the  Appin  murder. 

G.  Write  out  a  connected  summary  of  Chapter  IX  of 
this  book. 


'  CHAPTER   XXIII 

ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION— DESCRIPTIVE    AND    NARRA 
TIVE  WRITING 

165.  Original  Composition. — "I  haven't  anything  new 
to  say,"  is  the  student's  most  common  complaint  when 
asked  to  write  a  theme.  The  okl  proverb  runs,  "There 
is  nothing  new  under  the  sun";  how,  then,  can  the 
average  mortal  be  expected  to  find  some  new  thought 
to  express?  It  is,  indeed,  true  that  fresh  material, 
either  in  thought  or  in  experience,  is  hard  to  find, 
and  the  task  of  hunting  for  novel  subjects  is  neither 
profitable  nor  successful.  The  material  for  any  writer 
must  be  largely  the  old,  much -used  matter  that  has  gone 
to  make  up  life  for  centuries.  An  explorer,  an  inventor, 
or  a  poet  may  discover  new  facts  or  truths  to  tell  us,  but 
most  of  us  must  content  ourselves  with  ideas  that  are 
already  common  property. 

By  original  composition,  however,  we  do  not  mean  orig- 
inal subject-matter,  but  rather  the  writer's  own  expression 
or  representation  of  the  old  material.  Whatever  is  taken 
into  the  mind  is  transformed,  reshaped,  and  made  new, 
unconsciously  for  the  most  part,  in  such  a  way  that  the 
result,  when  it  is  given  forth,  will  differ  more  or  less 
from  the  result  of  any  other  mind  working  on  the  same 
material.  Evidences  of  this  are  common  enough.  No 
two  people  will  tell  the  same  story  in  precisely  the  same 
manner.  One  Avill  omit  an  incident  that  a  second  will 
mention,  and  a  third  will  dwell  at  length  on  what  a 
fourth  may  pass  over  briefly.  For  instance,  a  number  of 
witnesses  of  an  accident  will  tell  the  same  simple  story, 
each  in  his  own  way,   with  slight  variations  from   the 

374 


ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION  375 

other  narrators.  In  the  familiar  game  of  trying  to  enu- 
merate from  memory  all  the  articles  on  a  table,  few 
persons  will  make  the  same  tally.  This  peculiar  record 
which  each  mind  forms  of  its  own  thought  and  experi- 
ence is  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  original.  By  original 
composition,  then,  we  mean  the  personal  expression  of 
the  writer's  own  knowledge  and  experiences.  If  he  is 
honest  with  himself  and  tries  to  record  faithfully  Just 
what  he  has  in  his  mind,  he  need  give  no  further  thought 
to  originality.  In  this  sense  all  writing  (except,  perhaps, 
the  composition  of  summaries)  is  original.  The  story  of 
a  picnic,  or  of  a  battle;  the  description  of  an  experiment, 
or  of  a  person's  face;  the  explanation  of  evolution,  or  of 
a  system  of  athletic  training;  the  jiroof  that  cities  should 
own  and  operate  street  car  lines, — each  one  may  be 
treated  liy  any  writer  as  fresh  opportunities  for  expressing 
himself. 

166.  Two  Kinds  of  Material:  Objects  and  Ideas.— The 
material  which  all  writers  treat  consists  always  of  one 
of  two  kinds,  either  objects  or  ideas;  that  is,  some- 
thing that  is  seen,  or  something  that  is  thought.  A 
simple  illustration  will  serve  to  distinguish  the  two  kinds. 
In  looking  out  of  the  window  a  cloud  may  be  seen ;  it  is 
a  large,  puljiy  mass,  dark -gray  in  color,  shading  to  white 
on  its  borders,  with  a  golden  edge  where  the  sun-  strikes 
it.  That  cloud  is  an  object,  No  other  cloud  is  exactly 
like  it.  When  the  writer  undertakes  to  describe  it,  he 
should  see  "in  his  mind's  eye"  just  that  one  cloud.  But 
the  class  in  j)hysiography,  in  discussing  clouds,  do  not  deal 
with  this  special  cloud,  nor  with  any  one  cloud  that  the 
eye  has  seen.  They  deal  with  the  idea  "cloud" — a  sub- 
stance formed  of  vapor,  with  a  variety  of  characteristics. 
In  the  first  instance  cloud  was  an  object;  in  the  second^ 
an  idea.  Another  illustration  will  make  the  distinction 
clearer,    The  word  patriotism  suggests  to  us  many  ideas — 


37G  COMPOSITION'    AXD    RHETORIC 

clevotion  to  country,  self-sacrifice,  and  love  for  others. 
Not  one  of  these  qualities  is  an  object  which  we  can  see. 
Patriotism,  however,  may  suggest  an  illustrious  instance 
of  patriotism,  a  great  jjatriot,  such  as  Lincoln;  in  this 
case  we  have  an  object.  All  the  material  for  expression 
belongs  to  one  of  these  two  classes. 

167.  The  Nature  of  Description. — Allien  we  treat  the 
first  kind  of  material — ol)jecls — we  write  description.  It  is 
often  said  that  we  describe  ideas,  also,  such  as  anger, 
love,  or  cold.  But  actually  we  describe  only  the  effect  of 
such  ideas  upon  objects.  AVe  describe  a  man  in  anger, 
the  love  that  a  mother  shows  for  her  cliild,  or  tlie  action 
of  cold  upon  the  lake.  If,  then,  description  deals  solely 
with  objects,  the  ptirpose  of  description  is  a  simple  one: 
it  is  to  make  others  see  what  the  writer  sees.  His  imag- 
ination may  alter  the  foriji  of  the  object  he  has  seen; 
indeed,  he  may  never  have  seen  just  what  he  attempts 
to  describe.  It  is  of  no  importance  where  he  finds  the 
objects  that  he  wishes  to  represent,  but  as  ho  writes  he 
must  have  in  liis  mind  some  picture  that  he  wishes  us  to 
see.  Tlie  success  of  descriptive  writing  depends  upon 
the  vividness  witli  whicli  the  reader  can  see  this  picture 
tliat  the  writer  has  in  mind.  That  is  the  general  object 
of  descriptive  writing. 

168.  Description  for  the  Purpose  of  Identification. — In  tlie 
8im[»k'st  form  of  descri]ition  the  object  is  to  identify  the 
tiling  described.  The  "Lost  and  found  notices,"  for 
exampk^,  are  not  intended  to  suggest  a  picture,  but  to 
serve  as  a  means  of  comparison  with  the  artick'S  in  ques- 
tion. In  the  same  way  the  description  of  a  piece  of  real 
estate  in  a  deed,  or  of  an  escaped  criminal,  or  of  a  build- 
ing to  be  let,  is  designed  to  give  exact  information  and 
should  l)c  as  coiuplete  as  possible.  For  this  reason,  a 
])liotogra]th  usually  serves  better  to  identify  an  object 
than  any  description  of  it  in  words. 


OEIGINAL    COMPOSITIOX  377 

When  we  attempt  to  use  words  instead  of  a  picture, 
we  are  forced  to  limit  the  number  of  details,  to  state 
only  those  details  that  are  representative  and  specially 
important.  Thus  in  the  following  description  of  a  horse, 
from  a  newspaper  advertisement,  only  those  particulars 
of  the  horse  that  will  interest  a  possible  purchaser  are 
given : 

For  Sale  or  Exchange  for  a  Larger  Horse.— Exception- 
ally handsome  gray  mare,  with  dark  points,  sound,  kind,  high- 
headed,  spirited,  and  a  very  fast,  square  ti'otter,  height  15% 
hands,  weight  1,010  lbs. 

169.  Literary  Description. — The  principle  of  selection, 
which  was  observed  in  making  the  simple  inventory  of  a 
horse,  must  be  followed  out  much  more  fully  in  literary 
description;  that  is,  in  description  that  aims  to  present 
a  picture  of  the  object  to  the  reader's  mind.  Thus  Steven- 
son, in  the  following  passage  from  The  Jferri/  Men,  takes 
not  more  than  half  a  dozen  details  from  the  great  sweep 
of  landscape  that  he  has  in  mind : 

Aros  is  a  veiy  rough  islet,  its  surface  strewn  with  great  rocks 
and  shaggy  with  fern  and  lieather.  .  .  .  Upon  the  summit  [of 
the  highest  knoll]  I  pau.sed.  Although  not  very  high — not  three 
hundred  feet,  as  I  think — it  yet  outtops  all  the  neighboring  low- 
lands of  the  Ross,  and  commands  a  great  view  of  sea  and  islands. 
The  sun,  which  had  been  up  some  time,  was  already  hot  upon 
my  neck;  the  air  was  listless  and  thundery,  although  purely 
clear ;  away  over  the  northwest,  where  the  isles  lie  thickliest 
congregated,  some  half-a-dozen  small  and  ragged  clouds  hung 
together  in  a  covey;  and  the  head  of  Ben  Kyaw  wore,  not 
merely  a  few  streamers,  but  a  solid  hood  of  vapor. 

If  we  examine  this  description,  we  may  see  on  what 
plan  the  selection  of  details  should  be  made.  In  the  first 
place,  peculiar'  or  individual  facts  that  belong  to  the 
object  should  be  brought  out,  for  such  facts  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish the  object  in  mind  from  similar  objects.     Thus 


378  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

in  the  first  sentence  Stevenson  (hvells  npon  the  roughness 
of  the  island.  Secondly,  harmonions  details — that  is, 
those  details  that  fit  together — should  be  chosen,  in  order 
to  produce  a  uniform  impression,  Stevenson  brings  out 
in  the  last  sentence  several  indications  of  the  thunderous 
quality  of  the  atmosphere.  It  should  be  noted  also  that 
some  of  the  details,  such  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  the 
oppressive  quality  of  the  atmosphere,  appeal  to  other 
senses  than  that  of  sight. 

Much  must  be  necessarily  omitted  in  any  description, 
but  if  the  selection  of  details  is  made  skillfully,  tho 
reader's  imagiiuition  will  fill  in  the  picture  with  appro- 
priate facts.  That  the  details  should  be  suggestive  is  the 
third  requisite  for  good  description.  The  "solid  hood  of 
vapor"  about  the  headland  suggests  more  than  it  tells. 
The  principle  of  selection,  we  can  easily  infer,  is  the  most 
essential  ])rinfiplo  of  literary  art  in  descriptive  writing. 

170.  The  Principles  of  Unity  and  Coherence  Applied  to 
Description, — Any  object  seen  by  the  eye  is  viewed  as  a 
whole,  and  literary  description  must  attempt  to  give  this 
impression  of  unity  to  the  object  described,  by  a  careful 
selection  and  a  methodical  arrangement  of  details.  If 
the  "point  of  ^^ew"  (see  section  113)  is  shown  dis- 
tinctly, the  reader  will  be  assisted  in  gaining  a  unified 
picture  of  the  whole.  Stevenson  establishes  the  point.of 
view  in  his  description  of  Aros  upon  the  "summit  of  a 
knoll." 

In  looking  at  an  object,  its  parts  fall  naturally  into 
l)lace;  the  plan  of  the  whole  is  evident.  In  describing 
this  object,  we  must  supply  some  plan  for  the  reader  by 
means  of  which  he  can  arrange  the  'details  presented  and 
tlius  create  an  image  in  his  mind.  For  this  reason  the 
principle  of  coherence  should  bo  observed.  If  details  are 
put  together  at  random,  as  they  occur  to  the  writer,  the 
result  will  probably  be  confusing  to  the  reader.     What- 


ORIGINAL    COMTOSITION  379 

ever  plan  is  decided  upon,  it  must  be  followed  consist- 
ontl}'. 

171.  The  Interest  of  Descriptive  Writing. — When  the 
writer  has  done  his  best,  it  remains  true  that  even  the 
tiniest  photograph  gives  a  more  exact  idea  of  an  object 
than  pages  of  well-chosen  and  well-arranged  details.  For 
this  reason,  modern  methods  of  reproducing  photographs 
have  multiplied,  and  in  a  magazine  article  we  are  rarely 
left  to  the  text  alone  to  gain  an  idea  of  a  scene  or  an 
object.  Illustration  has  become  an  art  by  itself.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  no  process  of  reproduc- 
tion will  present  some  details  that  words  can  give,  such 
as  those  of  sound  and  odor  and  touch.  Moreover,  words 
do  more  than  represent — they  suggest.  The  writer  does 
not  depend  upon  his  statement  only;  he  depends  upon 
his  reader's  imagination.  Long  descriptions  of  unfamiliar 
scenes  and  objects  are  doubtle&s  tiresome;  but  short,  sug- 
gestive descriptive  passages  add  to  the  enjoyment  of  the 
reader  by  giving  a  sense  of  reality  that  he  would  other- 
wise miss.  No  picture,  no  series  of  pictures,  for 
instance,  even  in  colors,  could  render  the  sense  of  heat 
that  Kipling  gives  in  this  paragraph: 

That  spring  the  mohica  tree,  that  Baloo  was  so  fond  of,  never 
flowered.  The  greeny,  cream-colored,  waxy  blossoms  were  heat- 
killed  before  they  were  born,  and  only  a  few  bad-smelling  petals 
came  down  when  he  stood  on  his  hind  legs  and  shook  the  tree. 
Then,  inch  by  inch,  the  iintempered  heat  crept  into  the  heart  of 
the  Jungle,  turning  it  yellow,  brown,  and  at  last  black.  The 
green  growths  in  the  sides  of  the  ravines  burned  up  to  broken 
wires  and  curled  films  of  dead  stuff;  the  hiddea  pools  sank  down 
and  caked  over,  keeping  the  least  footmark  on  their  edges  as  if 
it  iiad  been  cast  in  iron;  the  juicy -stemmed  creepers  fell  away 
from  the  trees  they  clung  to  and  died  at  their  feet;  the  bamboos 
withered,  clanking  when  the  hot  winds  blew,  and  the  moss 
peeled  off  the  rocks  deep  in  the  Jungle,  till  they  were  as  bare 
and  as  hot  as  the  quivering  blue  boulders  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream.— Kipling:  The  Second  Jiuujle  Book. 


380  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

172.  The  Nature  of  Narration. — Xarratiou  deals  with 
objects  iu  action,  just  as  descrijjtion  deals  with  them  in 
repose.  We  may  describe  a  company  of  soldiers  as  they 
stand  ready  for  the  word  of  command.  As  soon  as  the 
company  changes  its  position  or  breaks  into  a  march, 
action  begins,  and  we  can  relate  the  changes  that  are 
brought  about.  A  new  element,  it  will  be  seen,  enters 
into  narration — the  element  of  time.  In  describing  the 
company  of  soldiers,  we  are  not  concerned  with  time;  the 
picture  is  once  and  for  all  the  same.  As  soon  as  the 
object  moves,  however,  we  have  to  take  account  of 
the  lapse  of  time.  Each  moment  finds  the  composition 
of  the  picture  slightly  altered.  If  we  compare  descriptive 
with  narrative  writing,  we  can  see  how  this  fact  of  time 
makes  narration  a  much  easier,  more  natural  task  tlum 
description.  While  the  soldiers  were  stationary,  we  could 
describe  them ;  but  it  takes  time  to  describe  even  briefly. 
The  eye  could  take  iu  the  company  at  a  glance;  the  writ- 
ten description,  on  the  other  lumd,  would  take  the  reader 
at  least  a  minute  to  comprehend.  Thus  descriptive  writ- 
ing is  always  running  a  losing  race  against  time.  Narra- 
tion, dealing  with  the  object  as  it  moves, — that  is,  as  it 
takes  time, — can  more  nearly  keep  up  in  the  race.  Nar- 
ration can  not  always  succeed,  however,  in  keeping  even 
with  the  march  of  events,  for  it  will  frequently  take  many 
sentences  to  relate  the  action  of  a  few  seconds.  Dunstan 
Cass,  for  example,  in  stealing  Silas  Marner's  guineas, 
took  far  less  time  than  the  author  does  in  narrating  the 
event : 

There  were  only  three  hiding-places  where  he  had  ever  heard 
of  cottagers'  hoards  being  found:  the  thatch,  the  bed,  and  a  hole 
in  the  floor.  Marner's  cottage  had  no  thatch ;  and  Dixnstan's 
first  act,  after  a  train  of  thought  made  rapid  by  the  stimulus  of 
cupidity,  was  to  go  up  to  the  bed ;  but  while  he  did  so,  his  eyes 
traveled  eagerly  over  the  floor,  wliere  the  bricks,  distinct  in  the 
fire-light,  were  discernible  under  the  sprinkling  of  sand.     But 


ORIGIKAL   COMPOSITION  381 

not  everywhere;  for  there  was  one  spot,  and  one  only,  whiok 
was  quite  covered  with  sand,  and  sand  showing  the  marks  of 
fingers,  which  had  apparently  been  careful  to  spread  it  over  a 
given  space.  It  was  near  the  treddles  of  the  loom.  In  an  instant 
Dunstan  darted  to  that  spot,  swept  away  the  sand  with  his  whip, 
and,  inserting  the  thin  end  of  the  hook  between  the  bricks, 
found  that  they  were  loose.  In  haste  he  lifted  up  two  bricks, 
and  saw  what  he  had  no  doubt  was  the  object  of  his  search ;  for 
what  could  there  be  but  monej^  in  those  two  leathern  bags? 
And,  from  their  weight,  they  must  be  filled  with  guineas.  Dun- 
stan felt  round  the  hole,  to  be  certain  that  it  held  no  more;  then 
hastily  replaced  the  bricks,  and  spread  the  sand  over  them. 
Hardly  more  than  five  minutes  had  passed  since  he  entered  the 
cottage,  but  it  seemed  to  Dunstan  like  a  long  while ;  and  though 
he  was  without  ;any  distinct  recognition  of  the  possibility  that 
Marner  'might  be  alive,  and  might  re-enter  the  cottage  at  any 
moment,  he  felt  an  undefinable  dread  laying  hold  on  him,  as  he 
rose  to  his  feet  with  the  bags  in  his  hand.  He  would  hasten  out 
into  the  darkness,  and  then  consider  what  he  should  do  with  the 
bags.  He  closed  the  door  behind  him  immediately,  that  he 
might  shut  in  the  stream  of  light:  a  few  steps  would  be  enough 
to  carry  him  beyond  betrayal  by  the  gleams  from  the  shutter- 
chinks  and  the  latch-hole.  The  rain  and  darkness  had  got 
thicker,  and  he  was  glad  of  it ;  though  it  was  awkward  walking 
with  both  hands  filled,  so  that  it  was  as  much  as  he  could  do  to 
grasp  his  whip  along  with  one  of  the  bags.  But  when  he  had 
gone  a  yai'd  or  two,  he  might  take  his  time.  So  he  stepped  for- 
ward into  the  darkness. — George  Eliot  :  Silas  Marner. 

Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  it  will  be  possi])lo  to  nar- 
rate an  occurrence  much  more  ra];)idly  than  the  time 
actually  taken  by  the  event, 

173.  The  Principle  of  Selection  in  Narration. — When- 
ever narration  can  not  kcerp  up  with  events,  there  is 
much  the  same  necessity  for  selecting  actions  to  relate  as 
there  is  for  selecting  details  to  describe.  Narration 
should  follow  action  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  to  accom- 
plish tbis  end,  unimportant  or  repeated  acts  may  be 
omitted.  The  more  nearly  the  narrative  keeps  time  with 
the  train  of  events,  the  more  interesting  it  is.     The  only 


SS'i  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

means  by  which  it  can  gain  time  is  by  the  use  of  selection. 
Tliis  is  especially  important  in  long  narratives,  such  as 
histories  and  novels,  where  the  chief  events  of  a  number 
of  years  are  recorded,  and  the  infinitely  larger  number  of 
minor  actions  are  necessarily  disregarded. 

174.  The  Importance  of  Coherence  in  Narration. — We 
are  guided  in  the  selection  of  events  by  the  principle  of 
coherence.  Enough  must  be  recorded  to  preserve  the 
thread  of  the  narrative.  In  real  life,  events  are  con- 
nected, one  action  depending  upon  another  in  an  endless 
cliain.  The  important  links  in  this  chain  can  not  be 
omitted,  if  the  reader  is  to  follow  the  narrative.  More- 
over, it  is  the  writer's  business  to  see  that  the  relation 
between  the  actions  he  narrates  is  made  quite  clear. 
Coherence,  then,  is  of  the  first  importance  in  narration, 
as  selection  is  in  description. 

175.  Unity,  Proportion,  and  Climax  in  Narration. — The 
other  literary  principles  apply  in  narration  as  in  every 
form  of  writing,  but  they  are  less  essential  than  the  two 
principles  of  selection  and  coherence.  Every  narrative 
should  have  as  a  center  sonic  one  definite  topic.  For 
example,  a  history  of  the  discovery  of  America,  containing 
many  hundreds  of  pages,  and  relating  numerous  events, 
will  have  but  one  principal  subject, — tlie  early  explora- 
tions upon  this  hemis])liere, — to  which  all  the  characters, 
actions,  and  events  will  bo  made  subordinate.  A  narrator 
must  not  spend  undue  time  or  space  upon  any  episode  in 
his  tale  to  the  disadvantage  of  other  parts.  Whatever 
his  scale  is,  he  should  follow  it.  Otherwise  he  will  give 
emphasis  to  unimportant  events,  or  slight  imjiortant  ones. 
The  law  of  climax  applies  especially  to  narration,  because 
the  interest  of  the  reader  in  the  opening  of  a  story  is 
necessarily  slight.  When  he  becomes  involved  in  the 
plot  of  the  tale,  his  interest  will  eitlier  grow  or  disappear. 
As  a  narrative  becomes  complex,  as  one  event  leads  to  a 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION"  383 

number  of  results,  the  reader's  attention  shonld  he 
engaged  more  firmly.  A  weak  ending  is  never  so  disap- 
pointing as  in  narration. 

176.  Qualities  of  Excellent  Narrative  Writing. — A  good 
narrative,  then,  will  move  rapidly;  action  will  follow 
action  in  close  succession.  Only  significant  events  will 
be  dwelt  upon ;  much  will  be  passed  over  v\^ith  brief  men- 
tion. Yet  the  connection  of  events  will  be  made  plain; 
the  reader  will  never  "lose  the  thread."  No  matter  how 
complex  the  narration  becomes,  it  will  have  a  simple 
subject  as  the  center,  and  will  march  on  with  increasing 
interest  to  the  end.  The  following  narrative  passage 
illustrates  especially  the  qualities  of  clearness  and 
rapidity : 

The  starting  rope  slackens  in  Miller's  left  hand,  and  the 
stroke,  unshipping  his  oar,  pushes  the  stern  gently  out  again. 

Thei'e  goes  the  second  gun !  One  short  minute  more,  and  we 
are  off.  Short  minute,  indeed !  You  wouldn't  say  so  if  yovi  were 
in  the  boat,  with  your  heart  in  your  mouth,  and  trembling  all 
over  like  a  man  with  the  palsy.  Those  sixty  seconds  before  the 
starting  gun  in  your  first  race — why,  they  are  a  little  lifetime. 

"By  Jove,  we  are  drifting  in  again!"  said  Millei",  in  horror. 
The  captain  looked  grim,  but  said  nothing;  it  was  too  late  now 
for  him  to  be  unsliipping  again.  "Here,  catch  hold  of  the  long 
boat-hook  and  fend  her  off. ' ' 

Hardy,  to  whom  this  was  addressed,  seized  the  boat-hook, 
and,  standing  with  one  foot  in  the  water,  pressed  the  end  of  the 
boat-hook  against  the  gunwale,  at  the  full  stretch  of  his  arm, 
and  so,  by  main  force,  kept  the  stern  out.  There  was  just  room 
for  stroke  oars  to  dip,  and  that  was  all.  The  starting  i"ope  was 
as  taut  as  a  harp  string.     Will  Miller's  left  hand  hold  out? 

It  is  an  awful  moment.  But  the  coxswain,  though  almost 
dragged  backwards  off  his  seat,  is  equal  to  the  occasion.  He 
holds  his  watch  in  his  right  hand  with  the  tiller  rope. 

"Eight  seconds  more  only.  Look  out  for  the  flash.  Remem- 
ber, all  eyes  in  the  boat." 

There  it  comes  at  last — the  flash  of  the  starting  gun.  I^ong 
before  the  sound  of  the  report  can  roll  up  tlie  river,  the  whole 
pent-up  life  and  energy  which  has  been  held  in  leash,  as  it  were, 


384  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

for  the  last  six  minutes,  is  let  loose  and  breaks  away  witli  a 
bound  and  a  dash.  .  .  .  Tlie  starting  ropes  drop  from  the  cox- 
swain's hands,  the  oars  flash  into  the  water  and  gleam  on  the 
feather,  the  spray  flies  from  them,  and  the  boats  leap  forward. — 
Hughes:  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford. 

Exercise  XXIII 

A.  In  what  sense  is  our  Avritiug  "original"?  How  does 
"original  composition"  differ  from  summarizing? 

B.  AVhat  are  the  two  classes  of  material  with  whicli 
the  writer  deals?  Give  examples  of  both,  and  illustrate 
how  one  may  be  transformed  into  the  other.  With  what 
class  of  material  are  description  and  narration  concerned? 

C.  AVhat  literary  law  applies  especially  to  description? 
AMiy?  Distinguish  literary  description  from  identifica- 
tion. Find  two  examples  of  each  from  your  reading. 
AVhy  does  tliis  description  fail? 

LOOKING    FROM    THE    TOP    OF    THE    WASHINGTON    MONUMENT 

The  view  from  the  Washington  monument  in  Wasliington, 
D.  C. ,  is  most  beautiful  and  most  interesting.  On  one  side  the 
Potomac  River  is  seen.^  You  can  follow  its  course  as  it  goes 
winding  thi-ongh  the  country,  until  it  appears  as  a  mere  silver 
thread,  and  then  disappears.  Here  and  there  a  ship  may  bo 
seen'  floating  on  its  surface.  On  each  side  of  the  river  the  green 
fields  slope  down  to  the  water.  It  looks  very  pleasant  on  the 
water  with  the  sun  shining  warmly. 

From  the  next  window  the  river  again  catches  your  eye,  but 
you  can  also  see  part  of  tlie  city.  It  is  a  residence  portion. 
You  see  the  house.'?  peeping  above  the  numerous  trees  surround- 
ing it.  You  see  an  occasional  building  taller  tliau  the  rest;  that 
is  a  hotel. 

On  the  third  side  you  see  the  principal  part  of  the  city.  Here 
the  "White  House"  is  seen,'  beautiful  in  its  simplicity,  and 
characteristic  of  the  nation.  Tlie  extensive  grounds  form  an 
excellent  background  of  green  for  its  pure  whiteness.  On  tlie 
right  of  tliis  is  the  building  of  the  Treasury  Department,  which 


»  Why  is  the  use  of  passive  verbs  weak? 


OKIGINAL   COMPOSITION-  3R5 

reminds  one  of  a  Greek  temple  with  its  nmiierous  beautiful  col- 
umns. On  the  left  is  the  handsome  but  more  business-like  build- 
ing of  the  Departments  of  State,  War,  and  the  Navy.  A  little 
distance  from  the  latter  structure  is  the  magnificent  building  of 
the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery.  It  is  built  of  white  marble.  Turn- 
ing now  to  the  right  of  the  scene,  you  see  the  splendid  new  po.st- 
oflfice  building,  and  beyond  that  the  Patent  Office  is  easily 
perceived  because  of  its  bright  red  bricks,  which  show  clearly 
against  the  green  background  of  the  numerous  trees  all  through 
the  city.  Tall  church  spires  raise  their  stately  heads  here  and 
there  among  the  crowd  of  hotels  and  lesser  buildings,  and  dimin- 
utive parks  dot  the  city  with  gi'een. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  the  last  jjicture,  which  is  the  most  beauti- 
ful. The  central  figure  of  the  scene,  and,  in  fact,  of  the  city,  is 
the  Capitol  Building.  It  stands  on  a  small  hill  and  is  thus  easily 
seen  from  all  parts  of  the  city.  This  building,  like  the  White 
House,  has  the  characteristics  of  the  nation  by  which  it  was 
constructed.  It  raises  its  splendid  dome  in  majestic  beauty  and 
dignity.  It  spreads  out  to  make  room  for  this  great  nation,  and 
yet  it  is  in  perfect  proportion.  Tlie  beautiful  grounds  by  which 
it  is  surrounded  enhance  and  add  to  its  great  beauty.  The  Mall 
and  the  Botanical  Gardens  form  a  great  green  pathway  from  the 
base  of  the  monument,  in  which  we  are,  to  the  entrance  of  the 
Capitol.  Just  back  of  the  Capitol,  and  unfortunately  almost 
hidden  from  view,  is  the  magnificent  bviilding  of  the  Congres- 
sional Library.  All  that  can  be  seen  of  it  is  the  splendid  golden 
dome.  This  shines  with  great  splendor  in  contrast  with  the  pure 
white  of  the  Capitol.  Behind  and  on  each  side  the  city  extends, 
forming  a  background  for  this  central  figure. 

D.  Comment  on  the  following  description,  pointing  out 
the  reasons  for  its  success: 

The  sun  has  just  set,  and  the  cold  bright  light  still  lingers  in 
the  west,  against  whose  radiance  everything  stands  out  distinct. 
There  is  one  solitary  little  frame  hut  on  the  corner  of  the  street 
unprotected  from  the  glare  of  the  bleak,  cold  sunset,  and  from 
the  steely  western  wind.  The  empty  lots  around  are  strewn 
with  rubbish  and  paper.  It  is  country,  for  there  are  no  houses. 
It  is  not  country,  for  there  is  no  grass.  Neither  are  there  any 
trees.  The  wind  seems  too  strong  for  any  living  thing.  Yet 
there  is  that  one  small  house,  someone's  home.  From  its  chim- 
ney comes  the  faintest  suggestion  of  a  grayish  wreath  of  smoke. 


386  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Somewhere  a  dog  is  baying  long,  mournful  howls.  Inside  the 
hut  a  child  is  crying,  not  angrily,  but  hungrily.  And  the  wind 
whistles  and  cuts  the  air  like  ice.  It  catches  up  the  dust  and 
dirty  papers  and  whirls  them  against  the  little  house,  wrapping 
it  in  a  blanket  of  icy  air  and  filth. 

E.  What  are  the  two  methods  of  description  used  in 
this  theme? 

In  the  Gazetteer  it  reads,  "Fort  Gates,  a  post-hamlet  of  Put- 
nam Co.,  Fla.,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  St.  John's  River,  140  miles 
from  its  mouth."  So  much  for  maps  and  statistics!  I  would 
add — 

A  great  white  house  standing  with  generous  doors  and  win- 
dows open ;  the  hot  sunshine  pouring  down  marks  the  broad 
piazzas  with  gleaming  bands  of  light  and  shatters  its  rays 
against  the  windows.  There  beside  the  steps  is  a  heavy  jessa- 
mine vine,  here  a  red  blurr  of  roses.  On  the  hill  slope  from  the 
house  to  the  river  are  first  a  bed  of  oleanders,  then  orange  trees; 
further^  down  are  oaks  and  cypresses,  and  reeds  swaying  and 
clicking  together  at  the  water's  edge.  And  there,  lying  face 
downward,  hanging  over  the  coquina  rocks  that  rise  but  a  foot 
above  the  water,  two  children  hold  long  reeds  and  push  out  into 
the  slow  current  innumerable  paper-sailed  boats  freighted  with 
pomegranate  flowers. 

F.  Examine  the  following  descriptions  and  j)oint  out 
the  plan  followed  in  arranging  the  details : 

1.  The  raftered  rooms  of  the  unpainted  frame  building  are 
large  and  airy,  with  little  staircases  here  and  there,  which  lead 
from  floor  to  floor.  Tlie  sunshine  streams  in  at  the  windows ;  all 
tlie  woodwork  is  whitened  as  if  from  flour  dust.  The  walls 
shake  with  'the  dull  clank  and  rattle  of  machinery.  Here  are 
great  vats,  which  churn  up  a  seething,  steaming  mass  of  brine ; 
there,  in  one  corner,  is  a  hot,  whirling  iron  mechanism,  the 
"drier."  The  salt  comes  flying  down  through  pipes  into  a  little 
room  full  of  "sifters,"  and  then  pours  into  the  troughs,  where 
the  packers  are  at  work.  Men  and  girls  sit  here  together,  seiz- 
ing and  filling  box  after  box,  bag  after  bag,  from  the  piles  that 
lie  at  their  side.  Out  in  a  shed  one  sees  heaps  of  staves  ready 
for  barrel  building,  and  hears  the  workmen  liammering  at 
the  hoops.     A  few  rosy-cheeked  girls,  boxmakers,  packers,  and 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION  387 

label-pasters,  sit  on  the  factory  steps,  eating  their  lunch  and 
looking  out  across  the  sandy  yard  to  the  blue  river  a  few  rods 
away. 

2.  It  had  rained  and  snowed  alternately  all  day.  Toward 
evening  it  had  ceased.  The  stars  came  out  and  shone  brightly 
in  the  clear,  dark-blue  sky.  The  moon  looked  down  on  a  fairy 
landscape,  for  the  houses,  the  roads,  and  the  trees  were  covered 
with  diamond  dust.  Pike's  Peak  was  black  in  the  distance. 
Not  a  sound  could  be  heard,  except  now  and  then  the  fall  of  a 
branch  encrusted  with  ice.  A  side  door  in  "The  Antlers"' 
opened,  and  a  little  girl  stepped  out  on  the  white  carpet.  She 
was  about  nine  years  of  age,  tall,  dark,  and  pale,  and  dressed  in 
a  very  short  black  frock.  She  looked  around  in  silence  for  a 
few  minutes,  with  her  lips  parted  and  her  nostrils  dilated.  Then 
a  shadow  passed  over  her  face,  and  the  light  went  out  of  her 
eyes.  Lifting  her  face  toward  the  heavens,  with  her  hands 
clasped  in  front  of  lier,  she  whispered,  "Oh!  Mamma,  dear." 
She  turned  and  was  soon  swallowed  up  by  the  little  door  in  the 
gray  stone  pile. 

G.  What  is  the  point  of  view  in  this  description? 

Come  on,  sir;  here's  the  place.     Stand  still.     How  fearful 

And  dizzy  'tis  to  cast  one's  eyes  so  low! 

The  crows  and  choughs  that  wing  the  midway  air 

Show  scarce  so  gross  as  beetles.     Halfway  down 

Hangs  one  that  gathers  sampliire,  dreadful  trade  I 

Methinks  he  seems  no  bigger  than  his  head. 

The  fishermen  that  walk  upon  the  beach 

Appear  like  mice;  and  yond  tall  anchoring  bark 

Diminish'd  to  her  cock ;  her  cock,  a  buoy 

Almost  too  small  for  sight.     The  murmuring  surge. 

That  on  the  unnumbered  idle  pebbles  chafes, 

Cannot  be  heard  so  high.     I'll  look  no  more, 

Lest  my  brain  turn  and  the  deficient  sight 

Topple  down  headlong. — Shakspere:    King  Lear. 

H.  Compare  description  and  narration,  showing  in 
what  respects  they  are  alike,  in  what  respects  they  differ. 
Can  you  tell  a  story  by  means  of  pictures?  "Wliat  is  the 
difficulty  with  this  method?  Is  description  ever  used  in 
narration?      Narration     in    description?      Separate     the 


388  COMPOSITIOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

descriptive  from  the  narrative  elements  in  the  passage 
from  Tom  Broiun  at  Oxford  (section  176). 

/.  What  principle  is  most  important  in  narration? 
Why?  Bring  to  class  an  example  of  what  you  consider 
effective  narrative  and  point  out  its  good  qualities, 

/.   "WTiat  is  the  chief  defect  of  this  short  narrative? 

IN  THE   DARK 

Is  anything  more  startling  than  to  wake  suddenly  in  the 
night  with  your  heart  in  your  mouth  and  a  sense  that  some- 
thing has  happened?  Your  breath  comes  quick  and  fast  and 
3'our  heart  beats  like  a  trip-Iiaramer — yet  all  is  still.  A  nameless 
fear  is  so  much  worse  than  a  known  one.  Last  night  I  woke 
suddenly  "in  the  dead  vast  and  middle  of  the  night."  All  was 
quiet  at  first  —  a  deadly  quiet.  Then,  oh,  horror!  the  bed 
rocked!  "An  earthquake,"  my  leaping  heart  told  me.  "No,  it 
can't  be,"  leason  answered.  Our  teacher  told  us  just  yesterday 
that  th' J  pai't  of  the  world  was  never  visited  by  earthquakes. 
This  thought  ran  like  lightning  through  my  mind.  But  just 
then  the  windows  began  again  to  rattle  and  the  bed  to  rock  so 
hard  that  I  held  my  breath,  expecting  every  minute  to  be  swal- 
lowed up  by  the  earth  or  to  feel  the  bricks  come  falling  down  on 
top  of  me.  I  imagined  that  I  was  slowly  moving  downward. 
By  this  time  my  nerves  were  so  highly  strung  that  when  my 
sister,  who  slept  with  me,  stirred,  I  thought  the  bed  was  rocked 
by  the  trembling  of  the  earth;  but  as  the  windows  did  not  rattle, 
I  decided  all  my  trouble  was  caused  by  her  restlessness. 

K.  How  is  climax  observed  in  this  narrative? 

SEEING  THE  SIGHTS 

One  afternoon  last  summer,  just  between  "hayin'  an'  har- 
ve.stin',"  a  farmer  and  his  family,  who  had  wearied  of  the 
World's  Fair,  bustled  aboard  a  Cottage  Grove  avenue  car  at 
Fifty-fifth  street,  bound  to  see  the  sights  of  the  city.  They 
were  a  typical  group.  "Pa"  was  stoop-shouldered,  careworn 
and  silent;  "Ma,"  on  the  contrary,  buxom  and  talkative;  while 
Bill  and  Abe  were  very  tall,  very  red,  and  very  fidgety.  The 
old  people  took  the  fx-ont  seat,  but  the  boys  raced  down  the  sides 
of  the  oar  to  the  rear.  "Ma"  was  the  spokesman.  She  paid  the 
conductor  and  questioned  him,  particularly  in  regard  to  Libby 


ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION  .  389 

Prison.  He  was  a  good-natured  fellow  and  assured  her  that  not 
only  would  she  pass  by  the  prison,  but  that  he  would  be  sure 
and  not  forget  to  stop  the  car.  "Ma"  thanked  him,  and  a  cloud 
of  anxiety  passed  from  her  face.  In  due  time  the  conductor 
rang  the  bell  and  called  out  "Libby  Prison."  The  car  stopped. 
"Ma"  became  excited  and  shouted  to  the  boys.  They  were  on 
the  alert.  The  whole  family  leaned  forward  and  gazed  a  long 
moment  at  the  war  relic.  Then  "Pa"  slowly  turned  and  waving 
his  arm  said,  with  a  satisfied  drawl,  "All  right,  conductor,  go 
ahead." 

L.  Lists  of  subjects  for  description  and  narration  are 
given  below.  Point  out  any  subjects  in  the  first  list  that 
could  be  treated  by  narration ;  any  subjects  in  the  second 
list  that  could  be  treated  by  description. 

(1)  Subjects  for  description : 

An  old-fashioned  garden ;  Puritans  going  to  church ;  a  sa^ 
coal,  or  other  mine;  my  uncle's  farm;  a  disastrous  fire;  the  Van 
Tassel  homestead ;  a  New  England  kitchen ;  a  moonlight  sail; 

coasting  at ;  my  birthplace;  the  last  football  or  baseball 

game ;  an  old  garret ;  climbing mountain ;  description  of 

a  favorite  picture;  a  view  from  my  window;  "down  town"  at 
six  o'clock  on  a  winter  evening;  a  waterfall;  the  local  library; 
a  pi'airie  fire;  the  day  before  Christmas;  a  cornfield  in  August 
and  in  November ;  the  village  street. 

(2)  Subjects  for  narration: 

A  child's  escapade;  how  I  got  lost;  my  own  ghost  story;  an 
exciting  sail ;  the  day  we  moved ;  the  exjiloit  of  Pheidippides ; 
Horatius  at  the  bi'idge;  how  the  sacred  geese  saved  Rome ;  the 
death  of  Nelson ;  the  battle  of  Manila ;  Mad  Anthony's  exploit ; 
the  sinking  of  the  Merrimac ;  the  fall  of  the  Bastile ;  the  battle 
of  Lookout  Mountain ;  how  Washington  crossed  the  Delaware; 
the  early  years  of  De  Quincey ;  Walter  Scott  and  Marjorie  Flem- 
iig;  Grant  at  West  Point;  the  assassination  of  Lincoln;  crossing 
the  ocean ;  the  story  of  the  rings  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice;  a 
track  meet ;  a  visit  to  Mammoth  Cave  (or  some  otlier  point  of 
interest);  snowed  in;  a  visit  to  a  mining  camp;  on  the  plains  in 
a  blizzard ;  a  railway  accident. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION— EXPOSITORY    AND    ARGU- 
MENTATIVE  WRITING 

177.  Terms. — We  turn  now  to  the  second  kind  of 
material  for  writing.  Every  idea  which  can  not  be 
referred  to  some  specific  object,  but  which  stands  for 
a  class  of  objects  or  for  a  quality,  belongs  to  this  division. 
"Cloud,"  we  saw,  could  be  taken  as  belonging  to  either 
division,  our  treatment  of  it  depending  upon  whether  it 
was  considered  as  an  object  (one  of  a  class),  or  the  class 
itself.  In  the  same  way,  the  subject  "island"  may  be 
considered,  as  in  Stevenson's  description,  as  one  special 
island,  or  it  may  be  treated  as  an  idea  representing  a 
certain  kind  of  geographical  division.  Qualities,  such 
as  truth,  patriotism,  or  cold,  can  not  be  treated  as 
objects;  Ave  can  not  describe  them.  Qualities  remain 
always  ideas.  It  will  be  convenient  to  distinguish  the 
names  of  qualities  and  general  ideas  from  the  names  of 
objects  by  calling  the  former  "terms."  In  expository 
and  argumentative  writing,  we  treat  terms,  not  objects. 

178.  Distinction  between  Description  and  Exposition. — 
We  found  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  in  treating 
objects,  we  could  either  describe  them,  or  narrate  what 
happened  to  them.  Terms  can  not  be  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  "Island,"  as  a  term,  has  no  body, 
nothing  out  of  which  we  can  make  a  picture  in  our 
minds.  The  word  "island"  calls  up  in  our  memory, 
perhaps,  the  picture  of  a  body  of  land,  either  a  print 
seen  in  some  book,  or  an  island  we  have  known. 
But    this    image    belongs    to    one    special    object,    and 

390 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION  391 

not  to  all  the  objects  included  in  the  term  "island." 
If,  then,  we  can  not  describe  the  term  "island,"  what  can 
we  say  about  it?  We  can  define  it,  tell  what  ideas  are  con- 
tained in  the  word,  what  it  means  to  all  people  who  use 
the  English  language.  The  dictionary,  for  example,  says 
that  an  island  is  "a  tract  of  land  surrounded  by  water." 
That  explanation  is  not  a  description  of  the  thing  called 
"island,"  because  it  does  not  help  us  to  see  it  as  an 
object;  but  it  helps  us  to  understand  what  it  means.  We 
know  what  "a  tract  of  land"  is,  what  "water"  is,  and 
what  "surrounded"  is;  hence  we  know  in  a  general  way 
what  "island"  is.  When  a  term  is  treated  in  this  man- 
ner— is  defined — the  literary  process  is  called  exposition. 
This  rather  formidable  word  means  nothing  more  than 
"explanation"  or  "definition." 

Exposition  is  a  very  common  form  of  writing,  perhaps 
the  most  common  form.  Essays,  such  as  Emerson's  essay 
on  "History,"  Carlyle's  essay  on  "Burns,"  or  Lincoln's 
"Gettysburg  Address,"  consist  largely  of  exposition,  that 
is,  of  explanation.  They  may  also  contain  description  and 
narration,  but  the  prhicipal  aim  of  the  essay  is  to  explain 
some  term.  All  text-books  are  expository  in  nature. 
This  Rhetoric^  for  example,  is  an  attempt  to  define  what 
is  contained  in  the  terms  "English  composition  and  rhet- 
oric." A  volume  like  Mr.  Bryce's  The  American  Common- 
wealth  is  almost  pure  exposition.  In  short,  wherever  a 
writer  aims  to  explain  ideas,  he  is  dealing  with  exposition. 
The  algebraic  formula  is  a  complete  illustration  of  the 
process :  x  (the  term  uiuler  discussion)  =  a  +  b  +  c,  etc. 
(the  ideas  contained  in  .r). 

179.  Hints  for  Use  in  Writing  Exposition. — If  exposition 
consists  simply  of  definition,  why  is  it  not  enough  merely 
to  consult  the  dictionary?  In  many  cases  the  first  step, 
surely,  is  to  consult  the  dictionary,  but  the  abridged 
explanation  there  found  will  not  add  much  to  our  know!- 


392  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

edge  of  the  term.  Moreover,  as  the  definition  in  the 
dictionary  consists  of  general  ideas,  we  may  be  forced  to 
define  these  in  turn.  Many  terms,  furthermore,  can  not 
be  found  in  a  dictionary,  e.  g.,  "concihation  with  Amer- 
ica," "arbitration  treaties,"  or  "municipal  ownership." 
Even  the  simplest  terms,  such  as  "island,"  cover  a  pretty 
wide  field  of  information:  there  are  volcanic  and  coral 
and  mountainous  islands;  there  are  matters  of  climate,  of 
ownership,  of  fisheries, — all  of  which  topics  are  properly 
included  in  the  term.  The  definition  of  rhetoric  in  the 
dictionary  would  not  take  us  very  far  in  our  endeavor  to 
understand  all  that  the  term  implies.  Exposition,  thei'c- 
fore,  demands  more  than  a  mere  statement  in  other  terms 
of  the  sul)ject. 

AVhe-re  shall  we  sto]!  in  our  process  of  defining,  and 
how  shall  we  proceed?  Obviously,  a  volume  could  be 
Avritien  on  almost  any  term.  The  first  step  is  to  limit  the 
subject  of  exposition  so  that  it  will  cover  only  those  ideas 
which  we  wish  to  discuss.  To  reduce  the  work  of  exposi- 
tion of  the  term  "island,"  for  example,  we  should  do 
Well  to  confine  the  term  to  volcanic  or  coral  islands,  or  to 
some  other  part  of  the  topic.  "Municipal  ownership  of 
street  railways"  can  be  more  easily  treated  than  "munici- 
pal ownership";  "municipal  ownership  of  street  rail- 
ways in  Chicago"  is  yet  more  precise  and  easily  handled. 

The  next  step  is  to  make  a  division  of  the  ideas  that 
are  covered  by  the  term  as  finally  stated.  An  excellent 
example  of  how  this  may  be  done  is  found  in  the  opening 
chapters  of  The  American  Commonwealth.  The  term  for 
exposition  is  the  American  system  of  government,  which 
the  author  separates  into  three  natural  divisions — the 
Executive  part,  the  Legislative  part,  the  Judicial  part. 
"When  he  considers  the  Executive  he  divides  again  into 
the  origin  of  the  presidential  office  and  provisions  for 
election,   for  reelection,   for  succession  in  case  of  death, 


ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION"  303 

etc.  Every  clear  exposition  should  be  plniined  in  this 
methodical  manner.  One  caution  must  be  observed:  the 
division  of  the  ideas  contained  in  a  term  should  be  made 
according  to  some  consistent  and  simple  plan.  If  Mr. 
Bryce  had  made  his  divisions  the  Executive,  the  Reve- 
nue, the  State  Legislatures,  and  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission, he  would  have  had  two  difficulties:  first,  the 
divisions  taken  as  a  whole  would  not  have  equalled  the 
term,  and,  secondly,  the  divisions  would  not  have  been 
related  to  each  other.  A  thorough  division  must  be  conr- 
plete ;  that  is,  the  parts  taken  as  a  whole  must  include  all 
pertinent  topics  contained  in  the  subject. 

A  third  necessity  in  expository  writing  is  the  use  of  illus- 
tration. To  make  almost  any  term  clear  it  is  necessary 
to  show  what  it  is  like.  Illustration  may  take  a  number 
of  forms:  comparison,  as  when  Mr.  Bryce,  in  explaining 
the  position  of  the  President,  compares  him  with  the 
Prime  Minister  of  England;  or  examj)le,  as  when  Mr. 
Bryce,  in  stating  that  the  American  people  do  not  favor 
a  third  term  for  the  presidential  office,  cites  General 
Grant's  failure  to  obtain  the  nomination  for  the  third 
time.  A  common  form  of  illustration  by  example  is  to 
describe  a  special  object  representative  of  the  whole  term. 
To  explain  volcanic  mountains,  for  instance.  Mount  Vesu- 
vius may  be  described  as  an  example  of  the  class. 

Almost  every  term  can  be  treated  successfully  in  the 
manner  described  above.  The  most  difficult  part  of  tlie 
work  is  the  division.  A  consistent  scheme  of  division  that 
will  include  all  the  facts  of  the  term  should  be  settled 
upon  in  the  outline. 

180.  Argument. — That  "There  must  be  two  sides  to  fm 
argument"  is  a  commonplace.  Argument  can  not,  like 
exposition,  deal  with  a  single  term  or  idea.  Before  we 
have  any  ground  for  an  argument  some  statement  affirm- 
ative or  negative  must  be  made  about  the  term.     If  this 


394  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

simple  truth  M'ere  always  remembered,  much  useless 
wrangling  would  be  avoided.  "Sixteen  to  one"  has  been 
a  battle  cry  of  late  years,  but  so  far  as  that  phrase  goes 
there  is  nothing  to  argue  about.  ' '  Prohibition"  is  a  similar 
instance  of  a  term  about  which  we  can  not  argue.  If, 
however,  we  make  an  assertion  about  each  of  these  terms, 
we  shall  have  the  basis  for  an  argument.  "The  United 
States  should  coin  silver  dollars  at  the  ratio  of  sixteen  to 
one"  (i.  e.,  sixteen  ounces  of  silver  to  one  ounce  of  gold), 
and  "Prohibition  is  the  best  way  to  deal  with  the  liquor 
question,"  are  both  statements  open  to  argument.  From 
this  we  may  see  that  argument  implies  at  least  two  ideas ; 
further,  it  implies  that  the  two  ideas  are  related  in  one 
sentence  (for  this  purpose  usually  called  a  "proposition"). 

Moreover,  a  proposition  to  be  Avorth  arguing  upon  must 
assert  something  which  is  open  to  reasonable  doubt. 
That  "Islands  are  bodies  of  land  surrounded  by  water," 
is  not  open  to  doubt  by  anyone  in  his  senses.  That  "The 
United  States  should  coin  silver  dollars  at  the  ratio  of 
sixteen  to  one,"  is  certainly  an  open  question.  That 
"Mimicipalities  are  self-governing  bodies,  usually  con- 
taining over  10,000  inhabitants,"  is  an  undisputed  fact; 
that  "Municipalities  should  own  street  railways,"  is  not 
a  settled  fact — it  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  A  matter  of 
fact  is  not  open  to  argument.  An  argument,  then, 
requires  a  proposition  about  which  there  is  a  reasonable 
ground  for  difference  of  opiuion.  The  object  of  argument 
is  to  show  the  truth  or  falsity  of  this  proposition. 

181.  Cautions. — Never  attempt  to  write  an  argument, 
or  to  speak  in  a  debate,  without  stating  clearly  the  propo- 
sition you  purpose  to  discuss.  Kever  state  the  subject  as 
a  term.  "Imperialism,"  for  examj^le,  is  not  an  argu- 
mentative subject,  although  it  may  easily  be  nuide  one. 
Further,  never  leave  your  reader  or  hearer  in  doul)t  as  to 
which  side  of  the  controversy  you  purpose  to  take.     For 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITIOIT  395 

this  reason  it  is  well  to  state  your  proposition  affirmatively 
rather  than  interrogatively.  In  debate,  the  proposition  is 
usually  stated  in  the  following  set  form-  "Resolved, 
that  municipalities  should  oAvn  street  railways."  Never 
begin  your  argument  without  first  explaining  all  the  terms 
contained  in  the  proposition,  A  good  exposition  of  the 
terms  will  render  it  comparatively  easy  to  argue  the  real 
question  at  issue.  Never  mistake  assertion  for  argument. 
To  say  that  free  coinage  of  silver  would  enable  the  poor 
man  to  pay  his  debts  is  an  assertion,  not  an  argument  to 
convince  us  that  the  United  States  should  authorize  the 
free  coinage  of  silver.  This  last  caution  is  of  such  impor- 
tance that  it  will  be  developed  in  a  separate  section. 

182.  Proof. — Proof  is  the  name  for  every  kind  of  state- 
ment advanced  in  an  argument,  tending  to  create  a  belief 
in  the  projjosition  under  discussion.  Proof  differs  from 
assertion  in  that  it  is  based  finally  upon  some  well-recog- 
nized fact,  while  assertion  is  merely  the  writer's  opinion 
on  the  matter.  The  last  illustration  in  the  preceding 
section  may  easily  be  made  into  proof,  if  one  can  show 
conclusively  that  the  assertion  is  based  upon  fact;  that  is, 
that  to  pay  his  debts  the  poor  man  needs  more  money; 
that  this  can  be  obtained  only  through  an  increase  in  the 
circiilation  of  money;  that  as  there  is  not  sufficient  gold 
in  the  world  to  provide  for  this  increased  circulation,  sil- 
ver as  well  as  gold  must  be  coined.  Proof,  therefore, 
usually  has  a  number  of  steps  in  it,  each  one  of  which 
must  be  clearly  made.  A  good  argument  is  much  like  a 
flight  of  stairs:-  the  first  step  rests  upon  the  gTOund — that 
is,  some  well-known  fact;  the  second  step  rests  upon  the 
first;  and  so  on,  until  Ave  reach  the  platform  at  the  top, 
which  is  the  main  proposition.  Assertion  may  be  com- 
pared to  one  step  hanging  in  the  air. 

183.  Parts  of  an.  Argument. — Every  argument  may  be 
divided  into  three  parts:  the  introduction,  the  proof,  and 


396  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIG 

the  conclusion.  The  introdnction  contains  the  explana- 
tion of  the  terms  of  the  proposition — what  is  meant  by 
the  question  at  issue.  Both  sides  in  an  argument  should 
agree  upon  this  preliminary  definition.  The  proof  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  propositions,  which,  if  shown  to  be 
true,  will  establish  the  truth  of  the  subject  for  debate. 
For  example,  in  the  question,  "Should  municipalities  own 
street  railways?"  we  may  have  the  following  three  propo- 
sitions, each  one  of  which  must  bo  discussed  and  proved : 
(1)  municipal  ownership  would  increase  the  efficiency  oi 
the  service;  (2)  municipal  ownership  would  reduce  fares; 
(3)  municipal  ownership  would  reduce  taxes.  All  three, 
if  proved,  would  go  far  toward  convincing  us  that  the 
main  proposition  is  true.  Finally,  the  conclusion  con- 
tains usually  a  summary  of  the  introduction  and  the 
proof. 

184.  The  Outline  or  Brief. — The  outline  in  argument  is 
usually  called  the  brief.  The  brief  should  contain  com- 
plete sentences,  i.  c.,  propositions, — one  proposition  for 
each  main  subdivision,  and  as  many  subordinate  proposi- 
tions as  are  necessary  to  prove  tlie  propositions  immedi- 
ately above  them.  The  best  explumxtion  of  a  brief  can  be 
found  in  studying  some  short  example  of  one,  e.  g. : 

RESOLVED  THAT   THE   CITY  OF  CHICAGO  SHOULD  OWN   AND 
OPERATE   ITS  STREET  RAILWAYS 

Inti-odiiction 

1.  By  sti'eet  railways  we  iiieaii  surface  lines,  not  elevated  roads. 

2.  We  do  not  pui'pose  to  discuss  the  means  of  acquiring  the  rail- 

ways,  whether  by  purchase  of  stock,    by   forfeiture  ot 
charter,  or  by  any  other  device. 

a.  For  tliis  does  not  belong  strictly  to  the  subject. 

3.  The  question  under  discussion  is  of  i:)resent  interest,  because, — 

a.  The  principal  companies  have  asked  for  a  fifty-year 

extension  of  charters. 

b.  New  companies  are  being  formed. 

c.  Koads  could  be  acquired  now  more  cheaply  thair 

later. 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION"  397 

4.  If  we  can  prove  that  municipal  ownership  would  be  (a)  prac- 
ticable, (b)  economical  for  the  city  and  for  the  people,  and 
(c)  would  give  better  service,  we  shall  prove  our  proposi- 
tion. 

Proof 

The  city  of  Chicago  should  own  and  operate  its  street  rail- 
ways, for 

A.  Public  ownership  is  practicable,  since 

1.  Other  cities  have  tried  the  plan  successfully,  as 

a.  In  the  case  of  Glasgow. 

2.  Public  ownership  of  similar  industries  has  proved 

successful,  such  as 

a.  Federal  ownership  of  postal  service. 

b.  Federal  ownership  of  dock  yards. 

c.  Municipal  ownership  of  gas  and  electric  light 

plants  and  waterworks. 

B.  Municipal     ownership     of     street     railways     would     prove 

economical: 

1.  For  the  city,  as 

a.  Even   with  reduced  charges  the  roads  could 

make  money,  for 

X.  The  present  companies  pay  large  sums 
in  dividends  on  excessive  stock  val- 
uation, and 

y.  The  present  companies  offer  some  com- 
pensation, if  their  franchises  are 
renewed. 

b.  The  city   could   save    oi)erating   expenses  by 

uniting  the  roads  under  one  head. 
X.  This  is  shown  by  the  economy  of  com- 
bination in  other  industries. 

2.  For  the  people,  as 

a.  Fares  could  be  reduced  to  four  cents,  possibly 

lower. 

X.  This  is  shown  by  the  income  of  the 
roads. 

b.  Under  a  single  management  transfers  could  be 

issued  to  all  parts  of  the  city. 

C.  Municipal  ownership  would   give  patrons  a  better  service 

than  at  pi'eseut,  for 
1.  The  present  service  is  defective. 
a.  Cars  are  overcrowded. 


398  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORir 

2.  No    influence   can   be   brought   to  bear  on    private 

companies. 
3    The   city  could  be  compelled  to  furnish  more  cars 
during  the  busy  hours  of  the  day. 

Co)iclusio7i 
If,  then,  as  we  have  attempted  to  prove,  our  contentions  in 
A,  B,  and  C  are  correct,  a  system  of  municipal  ownership  of 
street  railways  in  Chicago  should  be  adopted. 

In  stating  the  subject,  the  argument  lias  been  limited 
to  the  city  of  Chicago ;  in  the  introduction,  it  has  been 
further  limited  to  the  consideration  of  surface  lines. 
The  introduction  defines  the  terms  that  are  not  self- 
explanatory;  in  (;])  it  shows  why  the  subject  is  worth 
treating;  in  (4)  it  shows  what  must  be  proved  to  win  the 
case.  The  work  to  be  performed  is  thus  outlined.  The 
proof  is  divided  into  three  main  divisions.  Each  proposi- 
tion in  each  of  these  divisions  leads  up  to  the  proposition 
at  the  head  of  the  division,  and  thence  to  the  proposition 
which  is  the  subject  of  debate.  In  each  division  the 
numbering  of  the  propositions  .is  made  consistent;  propo- 
sitions numbered  according  to  one  system  (as  numerals  or 
small  letters)  are  always  parallel.  Further,  propositions 
are  related  by  causal  conjunctions,  e.  g.,  "because," 
"for,"  "as,"  "since,"  which  serve  to  make  the  connec- 
tion between  them  clear. 

It  is  evidrnt  that  this  short  brief  is  incomplete.  Tho 
chief  omission  is  the  absence  of  any  refutation;  that  is, 
an  attempt  to  meet  arguments  that  might  be  advanced  on 
the  other  side  of  the  question.  There  are  strong  argu- 
ments for  the  other  side,  such  as — "Public  ownership 
leads  to  corruption";  "It  is  not  a  saving  in  exjpense"; 
"A  municipality  is  not  as  enterprising  as  a  private  corpor- 
ation," etc.  Reasons  must  be  given  to  meet  these  argu- 
ments. Moreover,  exact  references  should  be  supplied  in 
A,  1,  a,  of  the  proof,  and  elsewhere.     In  this  example. 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION"  399 

the  brief  has  been  made  as  simple  as  possible  for  purposes 
of  illustration. 

A  good  brief  is  more  than  half  the  battle  in  argumenta- 
tive writing  and  in  debating.  A  brief  should  always 
precede  an  argument. 

185.  Rhetorical  Principles  in  Argument. — The  two 
important  literary  laws  in  argumentative  writing  are 
coherence  and  climax.  The  reader  or  hearer  must  be 
able  to  follow  "the  line  of  argument"  from  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  conclusion  without  once  losing  the  connection 
between  the  parts.  A  disorderly  argument  leads  surely 
to  confusion  on  the  part  of  the  reader  or  hearer.  Fur- 
thermore, the  main  propositions  should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  stronger  arguments  are  placed  near  the  end. 
The  ascending  scale  of  climax  is  especially  desirable  in 
spoken  argument. 

The  law  of  unity  is  maintained  by  carefully  limiting 
and  defining  the  principal  proposition,  and  by  carefully 
relating  each  sub-proposition  to  the  principal  one.  Pro- 
portion and  selection  in  argument  are  questions  of  judg- 
ment in  the  choice  of  material.  Obviously,  all  trivial  or 
subordinate  arguments  must  be  neglected  for  the  sake  of 
the  strong  ones. 

186.  The  Use  of  Exposition  and  Argument  in  Learning 
How  to  "Write. — In  expository  and  argumentative  compo- 
sition the  writer  is  compelled  to  think,  and  to  think  con- 
nectedly. Structure  is  all-important  in  these  forms  of 
composition.  A  successful  narration  or  description  may 
be  written  without  a  strict  plan  or  organization,  for  much 
depends  upon  vivid  words  and  happy  phrasing,  well- 
turned  sentences,  and  apt  details.  In  exposition  and 
argument,  however,  a  glib  use  of  language,  rounded  sen- 
tences, and  good  illustration  will  not  save  the  writer  from 
failure,  if  his  thought  is  not  exact  and  carefully  devel- 
oped.    These  more  difficult  forms  have  been  treated  here 


400  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

as  briefly  and  simply  as  possible;  experience  will  teach 
the  thoughtful  writer  many  new  facts  about  both  forms. 
But  the  more  important  principles  that  underlie  good 
thinking  and  good  writing  have  been  detined  and  illus- 
trated. 

Exercise  XXIV 

A.  Give  five  examples  of  terms  that  may  be  considered 
also  as  names  for  objects.  Give  five  examples  of  terms 
that  never  represent  objects.  Illustrate  witli  the  first  set 
of  terms  the  difference  in  treatment  between  description 
.and  exposition.  Does  a  term  ever  contain  more  than  one 
Avord?  What  is  a  proposition?  Make  several  proposi- 
tions from  the  terms  called  for  above. 

J>.  Define  exposition.  AVhy  is  the  dictionary  definition 
of  a  term  not  enough  for  purposes  of  exjiosition?  State 
in  your  own  language  the  necessary  steps  in  constructing 
an  exposition.  Show  how  this  passage  illustrates  expo- 
sition : 

THE  TOURNAMENT 

The  tournament  was  tlie  favorite  amusement  of  the  age  of 
Chivahy.  It  was  a  mimic  battle  between  two  companies  of 
noble  Knights,  armed  usually  with  pointless  swords  or  blunted 
lances.  In  tlie  universal  esteem  in  wliioh  the  participants  were 
held,  it  reminds  us  of  the  Sacred  Games  of  the  Greeks;  while 
in  the  fierce  .and  sanguinary  character  it  sometimes  assumed, 
especially  before  it  was  brought  fully  under  the  spirit  of  Chiv- 
alry, it  recalls  the  gladiatorial  combats  of  the  Roman  amplii- 
theatre. 

The  prince  or  baron  giving  tlie  festival  made  proclamation  of 
tl>e  event  througli  all  tlie  country,  brave  and  distinguished 
Knights  being  invited  even  from  distant  lands  to  grace  the 
occasion  with  their  presence  and  an  exhibition  of  their  skill 
and  prowess. 

As  a  rule,  only  Knights  known  to  fame  and  of  approved  valor 
were  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  contest,  although  sometimes  a 
stranger  Knight  was  permitted  to  enter  the  lists  without  having 


OlllGIXAL   COMPOSITION"  401 

first  divulged  his  name.  Like  the  coutestant  iii  the  Ol^-inpic 
Games,  the  aspirant  for  the  honors  of  the  tournament  must  be 
unstained  by  crime;  he  must  never  have  offended  a  lady,  never 
have  violated  his  word,  or  never  have  taken  unfair  advantage 
of  an  enemy  in  battle. 

Tlie  lists — a  level  space  marked  by  a  rope  or  railing,  and  sur- 
rounded witli  galleries  for  spectators — were  gay  Avith  banners 
and  tapestries,  and  heraldic  emblems  of  the  contending  Knights. 
The  rich  trappings  of  the  steeds,  and  the  magnificent  apparel 
of  the  assembled  princes  and  nobles  with  their  attendant  trains, 
made  up  a  spectacle  of  rare  gaiety  and  splendor.  The  expend! 
tures  of  all  concerned  in  the  festival  were  enormous  and  often 
ruinous.  An  old  writer  asserts  that  "gold  and  silver  were  no 
more  spared  than  though  they  had  rained  out  of  the  clouds,  or 
been  skimmed  from  the  sea."' 

When  the  moment  arrived  for  the  opening  of  the  ceremony, 
heralds  proclaimed  the  rules  of  the  contest,  whereupon  the  com- 
batants advanced  into  the  lists,  each  young  Knight  displaying 
ujwn  his  helmet  or  breast  the  device  of  the  mistress  of  his 
affections.  At  the  given  signal  the  opposing  parties  of  Knights, 
with  couched  lances,  rode  fiercely  at  each  other,  amidst  such 
cries  as  "Loyalty  to  the  ladies,"  "Fair  eyes  behold  you,  valiant 
Knights."  Victory  was  accorded  to  him  who  unhorsed  his 
antagonist,  or  broke  in  a  proper  maimer  the  greatest  number  of 
lances.  The  rewards  to  tlie  victor  consisted  of  jewels,  gifts  of 
armor,  or  horses  decked  with  knightly  trappings,  and,  more 
esteemed  than  all  else,  the  praises  and  favor  of  liis  lady-love. — 
Myers:     Mediaeval  and  Modern  History. 

C.  Wliicli  one  of  these  two  passages  is  exposition? 
What  form  of  writing  is  the  other? 

1.  A  FOOTBALL  FIELD 

The  dimensions  of  a  football  field  are  one  liundred  and  sixty 
by  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet.  The  field  is  crossed  from 
side  to  side  by  parallel  lines  five  yards  apart— a  fact  from  wliieli 
it  takes  its  name  of  "the  gridiron. '"  At  each  end  of  tiie  field, 
in  the  middle  of  the  boundary  line,  are  two  upright  posts, 
eighteen  and  a  half  feet  apart,  crossed  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
feet  from  the  ground  by  a  bar  painted  white.  The  uprights  are 
called  "goal-posts,"  the  cross-piece  "the  bar,"  the  lines  the 
"five-yard  line,"  "ten-yard  line,"  and  so  forth,  numbering  from 


402  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

the  goal-posts  to  the  center  of  the  field.  The  boundaries  at  the 
sides  are  called  the  "side-lines."  The  best  football  field  is  of 
tough  turf,  which  absorbs  moisture  readily,  lessens  danger  from 
falls,  and  affords  firm  footing  and  opportunity  for  speedy 
running. 

2.  A  FOOTBALL  FIELD 

A  long,  dun,  quiet  space,  with  patches  of  bare  earth  here  and 
there,  and  a  few  dying  weeds— this  is  the  football  field  in  the 
off-season.  There  is  nothing  about  it  now  to  proclaim  its  com- 
ing pride.  But  some  day  there  will  be  two  gallows-like  affairs 
of  timbers,  twenty  feet  high  and  more  than  a  dozen  broad,  one 
at  each  end;  the  field  will  be  filled  up  with  innumerable  cross- 
lines,  further  apart  in  the  middle  than  an  active  man  could 
jump,  but  apparently  growing  closer  and  closer  together  toward 
the  ends,  and  the  whole  will  look  like  an  immense  piece  of 
underdone  toast  with  a  couple  of  tootlipicks  stuck  up  at  each 
end.  So  it  will  lie  in  October,  in  the  days  of  its  glory,  waiting, 
with  its  stiff,  broad  whitewash  lines,  technically  called  "'five- 
yard  lines,"'  for  twenty-two  ugly  demons  in  dirty  armor  to  come 
out  and  frolic  over  it. 

D.   Criticise  the  following  expository  themes: 

1-  MONSOONS 

Monsoons  are  peculiar  to  certain  regions.  Owing  to  their 
peculiar  nature  they  can  take  place  only  in  regions  near  the  sea. 
Since  in  summer  the  land  is  warmer  than  the  ocean,  the  air  over 
the  land  is  liotter  and  hence  ligliter  than  the  air  over  the  ocean. 
In  the  winter  just  the  reverse  is  true.  Therefore  in  the  sum- 
mer the  wind  blows  from  the  ocean  to  the  land.  The  ocean  in 
winter  is  warmer,  and  lience  it  is  the  other  way.  Mountains 
along  the  coast  and  arid  desert  regions  in  the  interior,  increase 
the  effect. 

2.  INDOOR  BASEBALL  TRAINING 

The  training  of  baseball  teams  is  probably  not  so  violent  and 
trying  on  the  players  as  that  of  football,  yet  it  requires  fully  as 
much  care  and  a  great  deal  more  time. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  winter  term,  the  coach  has  the 
names  of  all  the  men  who  desire  to  play.  A  conference  is 
arranged,  and  he  lias  a  private  talk  witli  each  of  tlie  candidates. 
However,  the  positions  the  new  men  have  played  and  the  num- 


ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION  403 

ber  of  years  they  have  been  on  teams  counts  for  little  in  tlie 
foach's  mind,  as  he  immediately  starts  to  batting  grounders  to 
them  and  finds  out  for  himself  the  ability  of  the  men.  The  can- 
didates are  drawn  up  in  two  lines  at  one  end  of  the  gymnasium, 
and  the  coach  from  the  other  end  keeps  the  ball  bouncing  along 
the  floor. 

This  practice  in  catching  grounders  is  continued  during  the 
entire  indoor  practice.  But  this  is  only  one  of  the  exercises. 
After  the  men  liave  had  .several  weeks'  practice  in  catching  the 
grounders,  the  "cage"'  is  let  down.  Tlie  "cage"  is  a  net  which 
is  let  dov/n  from  the  ceiling.  While  some  men  work  here, 
others  learn  to  bat. 

A  short  time  after  the  batting  practice  has  begun,  another 
kind  of  training  is  introduced:  the  men  ai'e  taught  how  to  slide 
bases.  Two  long  mats  covered  with  a  slack  canvas  are  placed 
on  the  floor.  These  the  men  use  in  practicing  base-sliding. 
Having  slid  several  times  the  candidates  go  on  the  track  and 
run  five  or  six  laps. 

Tlie  batting  practice  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
training,  and  tlie  coach  thinks  tliat  if  a  team  can  bat  there  is 
some  hope  of  making  runs.  Accordinglj'  he  gives  this  phase  of 
the  work  much  attention.  Now  he  allows  the  captain  to  take 
his  place  in  batting  grounders,  and  he  goes  into  the  cage  to 
teach  the  new  men  how  to  swing  on  the  ball  and  where  to 
place  it.  Thus,  much  of  the  training  of  a  baseball  team  is  done 
indoors. 

3.      CONSTRUCTIVE  WORK  IN   THE  CHICAGO  ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS 

Recently  there  has  been  much  discussion  in  Chicago  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  term  "con.structive  work. "  No  two  persons  seem 
to  agree  as  to  its  exact  meaning.  Some  people  say  that  manual 
training  and  constructive  work  are  synonymous ;  while  others 
believe  that  all  manual  training  is  constructive  work,  but  that 
not  all  constructive  work  is  manual  training.  This  brings  forth 
the  question :  What  is  manual  training?  The  Chicago  Manual 
Training  As.sociation  says  that  "IManual  training  is  any  form  of 
constructive  work  which  serves  to  develop  tlie  child  through 
intelligent  self-activity."  If  we  accept  this  definition  of  man- 
ual training,  we  shall  have  to  agree  that  constructive  work  is 
broader  than  manual  training,  that  it  concei'ns  itself  with  the 
fine  arts  as  well  as  with  the  mechanical  arts.     However  that 


404  COMPOSTTIO^^    AXD    RHETORin 

may  be,  constructive  work  as  taught  in  most  of  the  elementary 
scliools  to-day  has  a  much  narrower  scope — it  is  simply  that  form 
of  manual  training  that  is  done  in  the  schoolroom  under  the 
direction  of  the  grade  teacher.  It  is  tlie  making  of  things 
which  serve  to  educate  the  eye  and  the  hand.  It  consists  of 
knitting,  sewing,  weaving,  bi'aiding,  embroidering,  crocheting, 
cutting,  folding,  pasting,  and  molding.  It  is  making  chains,  balls, 
boxes,  furniture,  windmills,  washboards,  lamp-posts,  and  letter- 
boxes out  of  cardboard  and  paper;  it  is  making  swings,  sofa  pil- 
lows, pin-cushions,  log  houses,  cork  houses,  Eskimo  houses,  dolls' 
clothes,  scrap-books,  and  the  American  flag  of  red,  white,  and 
blue  flannel  with  gilt  paper  stars;  it  is  the  dres.sing  of  dolls  to 
represent  the  Cuban  War  soldier  boy,  the  Red  Cro.ss  nurse,  the 
college  girl  in  cap  and  gown,  Queen  Elizabeth,  or  Queen  Vic- 
toria. It  is  the  making— the  making  by  the  hand  in  the  school- 
room— of  anything  that  the  teacher  or  the  child  can  think  of. 

E.  Write  a  brief  expository  theme  on  one  of  the  follow- 
ing topics: 

1.  The  cause  of  variation  in  the  lengtli  of  day  and  night. 

3.  How  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  elected. 
8.  "Sliding  bases." 

4.  The  principle  of  the  camera. 

5.  The  oflfice  of  Augur  among  the  Romans. 

6.  The  diving-bell. 

7.  The  origin  and  functions  of  CO,  in  the  atmosphere. 

F.  Write  expository  themes  of  from  three  to  five  pages 
in  length  on  one  of  the  following  topics.  Develop  by 
definition,  division,  and  illustration: 

1.  The  civil  service. 

3.  Some  theories  about  the  cause  of  volcanoes. 

3.  The  origin  of  Thanksgiving. 

4.  A  dry-dock. 

5.  The  swarming  of  bees. 

6.  Color  photography. 

7.  The  honor  system  in  school  and  college  examinations. 

8.  The  chainless  bicycle. 

9.  The  cause  of  liot  .springs. 
10.  The  typesetting  machine. 


ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION  405 

11.  A  printing  office. 

12.  How  bank  notes  are  made. 

13.  The  advantages  of  a  school  debating  society. 

14.  Whale  fishing. 

1-5.  The  origin  of  the  American  flag. 

G.  In  what  respects  does  argiiment  differ  from  exposi- 
tion? Frame  a  good  definition  for  argument.  "What  is  a 
brief?  How  does  a  brief  differ  from  an  outline  such  as 
has  been  discussed  in  section  IGl? 

H.  What  are  the  three  parts  of  an  argument?  AVhat 
does  each  part  contain?  What  is  the  nature  of  the  intro- 
duction? 

/.  Can  every  proposition  be  argued?  Find  three 
propositions  suitable  for  argument.  What  is  opinion? 
What  is  assertion?  What  is  joroof?  Illustrate  each 
one. 

J.  Select  from  the  following  list  two  propositions  that 
you  could  argue  upon,  and  limit  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  you  coiild  treat  them  in  themes : 

1.  Intemperance  is  one  of  the  cliief  causes  of  poverty. 

2.  The  Swi.ss  Referendum  should  be  adopted  in  the  United 
States. 

3.  Arctic  expeditions  should  be  discouraged. 

4.  Pai'ty  politics  should  have  nothing  to  do  with  municipal 
elections. 

5.  Home  missions  are  more  important  than  foreign  missions. 

6.  A  college  education  is  advantageous  in  a  business  career. 

7.  A  third  term  of  office  for  the  President  of  the  United 
States  should  be  made  permissible. 

8.  The  plan  of  not  paying  members  of  Parliament  succeeds 
in  England. 

9.  Immigration  should  be  restricted. 

10.  We  have  no  national  song. 

K.  Supply  sub-propositions  for  the  two  propositions 
required  in  the  preceding  section.  If  necessary,  supply 
propositions  supporting  these  sub-propositions,  numljer- 
ing  them  carefully. 


406  COMPOSITION    AJTD    RHETORIC 

L.  "What  are  the  defects  in  these  proofs? 

1.  The  small  salaries  which  department  stores  pay,  easily 
enable  them  to  lower  the  price  of  their  goods  and  so  steal  pat- 
ronage away  from  country  proprietors.  The  manufacturers, 
too,  who  supply  these  stores,  forced  to  sell  their  articles  cheap, 
must  use  every  means  in  their  power,  whether  right  or  wrong, 
that  their  own  incomes  maj'  not  be  reduced.  Tims  cheating  is 
induced  and  encouraged,  and  goods  are  not  made  so  well ;  they 
are  less  genuine.  Again,  the  salaries  of  employes  are  lowered 
or  their  hours  prolonged  with  the  same  paj'  as  before. 

2.  Persons  who  indiscriminately  give  alms  almost  always  give 
to  the  undeserving.  Thus  they  discourage  thrift  and  put  a  pre- 
mium on  shiftlessness.  Furthermore,  they  ci'eate  a  sense  of 
injustice  on  the  side  of  the  deserving. 

M.  AVrite  a  brief  for  the  negative  on  the  stiloject  of 
mnnicipal  ownership  of  railways,  following  in  the  general 
plan  the  brief  in  section  184. 

N.  Prepare  one  brief  from  the  propositions  selected  in 
J,  and  after  correction  of  the  brief  by  the  instructor, 
complete  the  argument.  Prepare  another  brief  for  a 
debate,  put  it  on  tlie  blackboard  for  the  class  to  criticise, 
and  then  rewrite  it. 


APPENDIX  A 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH 


I.     FIGURES    OF    SPEECH    DEFINED 

In  Chapter  XV  it  has  been  pointed  out  that,  with 
due  limitations,  specific  terms  are  to  be  preferred 
to  general  for  the  sake  of  clearness  and  force.  For 
cxam2)le,  "The  end  of  acquisition  and  accumulation 
is  conventionally  held  to  be  the  consumption  of  the 
goods  accumulated,"  is  less  clear  than,  "A  man 
puts  his  dollars  in  the  bank  in  order  that  he  may 
buy  bread,  clothes,  and  a  house  when  he  wants 
them."  In  the  same  way  it  is  less  forcible  to  say, 
"There  shall  be  universal  peace,"  than,  "They  shall 
beat  their,  swords  into  ploughshares  and  their  spears 
into  pruning-hooks ;  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword 
against  nation,  neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more." 
The  general  terms  "acquisition,"  "accumulation," 
"consumption,"  "goods,"  "peace"  are  less  easily  under- 
stood and  less  vivid  than  the  specific  terms  "dollars," 
"bank,"  "bread,"  "clothes,"  "house,"  "swords,"  and 
"pruning-hooks." 

The  words  in  the  second  group  above  have  been  in 
greater  or  less  degree  turned  from  their  original  or  literal 
meaning;  as  used  here  they  are  spoken  of  as  figures  of 
speech  or  tropes.^ 

Tropes  abound  in  speech  and  writing.  Many  of  them, 
indeed,  we  no  longer  recognize  as  tropes,  because  the 
figurative  sense  of  the  words  has  become  the  common 
meaning,  while  the -literal  sense  has  been  lost,  either 
wholly  or  partly.     Thus  we  can  speak  of  a  "retentive 


>  From  the  Greek  verb,  rpeVw  (to  turn). 

407 


408  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

luiud,"  but  not  of  a  "retentive  vesser';  of  a  "pre- 
ponderating influence,'"  Lut  not  of  a  "preponderating 
rock.'"  Many  more  words  may  be  used  either  literally 
or  figuratively;  e.  g.,  the  "weiglit  of  evidence,"  and 
the  "weiglit  of  sand";  a  "solvent  bank,"  and  a  "sol- 
vent for  gold";  a  "monumental  courage,"  and  a  "monu- 
mental inscription";  the  "inclination  of  the  will,"  and 
the  "inclination  of  the  angle";  a  "soft  heart,"  and  a 
"soft  rug";  a  "fertile  fancy,"  and  a  "fertile  field,"  etc. 
]\Iore  obviously  figurative  are  the  words  which  a  given 
writer  or  speaker  for  the  first  time  turns  away  from  their 
literal  meaning,  or  those  which,  in  the  figure,  depart  so 
far  from  the  original  significance  that,  however  often  they 
are  used,  we  find  it  hard  to  forget  both  the  primary  and 
the  secondary  meaning.  These  latter  are  what  are  com- 
monly known  as  tropes.  We  shall  discuss  some  of  the 
forms  in  which  they  occur. 

II.    SYNECDOCHE    AND    METONYMY 

One  of  the  simplest  of  figures  is  the  use  of  the  name 
of  a  part  for  the  name  of  the  whole;  a  species  for  a  genus; 
an  individual  for  a  species.  This  form  of  trope  is 
called  synecdoche.^  Examples  are:  the  "bench,'  the 
"bar,"  the  "board" — for  the  judges  on  the  bench,  the 
lawyers  within  the  bar,  the  members  of  the  board;  "coin'' 
for  money;  a  "Judas"  for  a  traitor,  etc. 

A  similar  substitution  occurs  when  an  accompaniment 
is  taken  for  the  thing  it  accompanies,  a  cause  for  an 
effect,  a  sign  for  the  thing  signified,  etc.  This  trope  is 
called  metonymy.'-  Such  are  the  expressions:  "gray 
hairs"  for  age;  "sunshine"  for  happiness;  "seed-time" 
for  spring;  also  tlie  "altar,"  the  "baton,"  the  "toma- 
hawk," the  "purse,"  etc.,  when  used  to  express  acts  or 


-  From  the  Greek  o-vi-  (topether),  and  iK&exoiJ.ai  (take  or  uuderstaud). 
aFi-oiu llie  Greek  n-f^a  ^eluuigi),  aud  oro^a  (uume),  i.e.,  cliauge of  uame. 


APPENDIX    A  409 

things  that    are    usual    accompaniments    of     the     ideas 
expressed  by  the  terms. 

The  distinction  between  Synecdoche  and  Metonymy  still 
lingers  iu  some  school-rooms;  but  it  is  obviously  of  no  practical 
value,  for  the  force  of  tropes  belonging  to  either  class  lies  in 
the  fact  that  they  single  out  a  quality  of  the  object,  or  a 
circumstance  connected  with  it,  and  fix  the  attention  upon 
that.  The  quality  or  the  circumstance  thus  emphasized  should, 
of  course,  be  the  real  centre  of  interest. — A.  S.  Hill:  Tlie 
Principles  of  Rhetoric.     Revised  Ed.,  p.  117 

It  can  not  be  said  that,  as  an  iuvariabio  rule,  either  met- 
onymy or  synecdoche  promotes  clearness  more  than  force, 
or  force  more  than  clearness.^ 

III.    METAPHOR    AXD    SIMILE 

Perhaps  the  most  common  form  of  trope  consists  of  an 
implied  comparison.  This  is  called  a  metaphor.  In  the 
lines  from  Tennyson's  Ulysses, 

Yet  all  experience  is  an  arch  where  thro' 
Gleams  that  untravell'd  world, 

the  comparison  lies  between  an   abstract  idea,   "experi- 
ence," and  a  concrete  idea,  "arch." 
Other  examples  are: 

An  hour  before  the  worshipped  sun 

Peer'd  forth  the  golden  window  of  the  east. 

— Shakspere. 
I  shall  light  a  candle  of  understanding  in  thine  heart,  which 
shall  not  be  put  out. — Z7te  Bible. 

He  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and  abundant 
streams  of  revenue  gushed  forth. — Webster. 

In  the  simile  the  comparison  implied  in  the  metaphor 


>  Some  rhetoricians  classify  figures  in  two  broad  divisions:  figures  that 
promote  clearness,  and  figures  that  promote  foi-ce.  No  such  strict  division, 
however,  can  be  made.  Frequently  a  figure  by  illustrating  an  abstract 
thought  really  gives  force  to  the  idea;  again  the  happy  use  of  a  forcible 
metaphor  or  simile  may  by  stimulating  the  mind  add  to  the  clearness  of  the 
thought.  Each  case  must  be  decided  on  its  own  merits,  ^^■hen  it  is  important 
to  make  any  decision 


410  COMPOSITION"    AND    EHETORIC 

is  stated  in  fall,  and  usually  introduced  by  "like"  or  "as." 
Any  metaphor,  therefore,  may  be  converted  into  a  simile;, 
thus,  the  second  example  above  could  be  changed  thus: 
"An  hour  before  the  sun  rose  from  the  east  as  if  it 
peered  from  a  golden  window.  ..."  Further  examples 
of  the  simile  are: 

Angling  may  be  said  to  be  so  like  the  mathematics  that  it 
can  never  be  fully  learnt. — Izaak  Walton. 

Her  beauty  hangs  iiiion  the  cheek  of  night 

Like  a  rich  jewel  in  an  Ethioi^e's  ear.    — Suakspehe. 

Like  as  the  waves  make  tow^ards  the  pebbled  shore, 

So  do  our  minutes  hasten  to  their  end.         — Shakspere. 

The  process  of  thought  in  the  metaphor  and  in  the 
simile  is  essentially  the  same.  The  comparison  serves  to 
emphasize  the  one  or  two  qualities  v/hich  the  objects  com- 
pared have  in  common.  The  metaphor  is  a  more  hyperbolic 
expression  than  the  simile  in  that  it  asserts  an  apparent 
falsehood,  while  the  simile  does  not  go  further  than 
to  state  a  comparison.  For  this  reason  the  metaphor 
is  commonly  said  to  be  the  stronger,  more  emotional 
trope  of  the  two.  The  simile  is  to  be  preferred  to  the 
metaphor  whenever  the  comparison  is  not  at  once  appar- 
ent. Involved  or  far-fetched  similes  and  metaphors  are 
to   be   avoided;    also,    confused  or  "mixed"  metaphors. 

IV.    PERSONIFICATION    AND    APOSTROPHE 

One  special  form  of  metaphor  is  the  trope  called  per- 
sonification, by  which  life  and  the  characteristics  of 
animate  objects  are  given  to  inanimate  objects,  e.  g. : 

And  watching,  with  eternal  lids  apart 
Like  Nature's  patient,  sleepless  Eremite, 
The  moving  waters  at  their  pricstlike  task 
Of  pure  ablution  round  earth's  human  shores. 

— Keats. 

And  gentle  Dulness  ever  loves  a  joke.  — Pope. 


APPENDIX    A  411 

Personification  when  not  used  to  excess  stimulates  the 
fancy  and  gives  reality  to  abstractions.  The  danger  in 
the  use  of  this  trope  is  that  mere  sex,  and  not  qualities 
of  life,  shall  be  given  to  the  object. 

Y.    APOSTROPHE 

Closely  related  to  personification  is  that  form  of 
address  to  an  imaginary  or  absent  person  called  apostro- 
phe, as: 

Sweet  Queen  of  Parley !    Daughter  of  the  Spheres ! 

So  mayst  thou  be  translated  to  the  skies ; 

And  give  resounding  grace  to  all  Heaven's  harmonies ! 

— Milton. 

This  figure  is  more  natural  in  verso  than  in  prose. 
Indeed  good  modern  prose  uses  apostrophe  very  rarely. 

VI.    FORMS    OF    LITERATURE    CLASSIFIED    AS    FIGURES 

Certain  forms  of  literary  expressions,  such  as  the  epi- 
gram, the  fable,  the  allegory,  the  parable,  are  often 
called  figures  of  speech,  although  they  have  little  more  of 
the  nature  of  tropes  than  the  short  story,  the  essay,  and 
other  literary  forms. 

(a)  Originally,  an  epigram  meant  an  inscription.  From 
this  use,  which  implies  conciseness  ami  point,  the  term 
came  to  be  applied  to  short  poems,  frequently  only  coup- 
lets, that  expressed  some  general  truth  in  a  striking 
manner.  The  term  epigram  as  at  present  used  means 
a  concise  statement  in  which  there  is  "a  conflict  between 
the  form  of  the  language  and  the  meaning  really  con- 
veyed" (Bain).  "To  be  epigrammatic  an  expression 
must  have  fundamentally  two  qualities:  it  must  be 
brief;  it  must  give  some  unexpected  turn  to  the  idea" 
(Genung).     Example: 

Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought. 

(b)  The  fable  is  a  short  story,  embodying  some  special 


412  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

moral,  rreqnently  animals  or  inanimate  objects  exem- 
plify the  qualities  of  character  displayed.  ^Esop's  and 
La  Fontaine's  Fables  are  the  most  celebrated  examples  of 
this  form  of  literature. 

(c)  The  parable  is  a  fictitious  example.  A  case  is  sup- 
posed and  narrated  to  illustrate  a  moral  truth.  The 
parables  of  the  Bible  are  the  best  examples  of  this 
hypothetical  method  of  argument. 

(d)  The  allegory  is  merely  a  longer  form  of  the  fable 
or  the  parable.  In  the  allegory,  persons,  real  or  imag- 
inary, and  inanimate  objects,  are  used  to  bring  out  a 
moral  truth.  Throughout  the  story  the  comparison 
between  the  fanciful  details  and  real  life  must  be  sus- 
tained. Famous  examples  of  allegories  are:  The  Pil- 
griin's  Progress^  in  which  the  spiritual  progress  of  a 
Christian  is  pictured  by  the  story  of  a  pilgrim  in  search 
of  a  distant  country;  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  in  which 
virtues  and  vices  are  personified;  Gulliver'' s  Travels^  in 
which  human  follies  and  vices  are  ridiculed  by  the  por- 
trayal of  society  among  imaginary  peoples — dwarfs,  giants, 
horses,  etc. 

The  fable,  the  parable,  and  the  allegory  are  all  closely 
related  to  personification.  All  are  stories  told  for  the 
purpose  of  moral  instruction. 

VII.    SEXTENCE-FORMS    CLASSIFIF.D    AS    FIGURES 

Certain  well-marked  forms  of  arranging  the  elements 
in  the  sentence  are  usually  called  figures  of  speech. 
iSuch  are: 

(a)  Interrogation,  e.  g.,  "Doih  Job  fear  God  for 
naught?" 

This  oratorical  device  is  used  only  where  tlie  answer  to 
the  question  is  self-evident. 

(b)  Exclamation,  e.  g.,  "0  eloquent,  just  and  mightie 
Death!" 


APPENDIX    A  413 

Frequent  use  of  this  device  either  in  writing  or  in 
j-jjeaking  weakens  rather  than  strengthens  the  style. 

(c)  Antithesis,  e.  g.,  "To  be  a  blessing,  and  not  a 
curse." 

In  antithesis  one  element  of  a  sentence  is  set  over 
against  another  in  form  and  in  sense. 

(d)  Climax,  e.  g.,  "I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered." 
Climax   (from  the  Greek  KAt'/xa^,  a  ladder)  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  ascending  interest  iii   thought  and  expression. 
It  may  be  applied  to  phrases,  sentences,  paragraphs,  or 
whole  compositions.     See  page  2G4. 

VIII.    QUALITIES    OF   STYLE    CLASSIFIED    AS    FIGURES 

Two  so-called  tropes,  hyperbole  and  irony,  are  rather 
qualities  of  style,  pervading  either  a  single  statement  or 
a  whole  composition.  Hyperbole  consists  of  conscious 
overstatement  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  For  instance, 
"He  flew  down  the  track  like  lightning"  is  a  hyperl)olic 
expression;  so  also  is  this  apostrophe  to  Helen  in  Mar- 
lowe's Dr.  Faustus: 

Was  this  tlie  face  that  launched  a  thousand  ships, 
And  burnt  tlie  topless  towers  of  Ilium? 
Sweet  Helen,  make  me  immortal  with  a  kiss. 

Irony  exjiresses  the  contrary  of  what  is  meant.  It  is 
the  quality  of  obvious  untruth.  Swift's  Tale  of  a  Tub  is 
a  celebrated  instance  of  sustained  irony.  Certain  pas- 
sages of  Job,  e,  g.,  "No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and 
wisdom  will  die  with  you,"  are  admirable  instances  of 
the  quality  of  irony. 

IX.     THE    USE    OF    FIGURES    OF    SPEECH    IN"    COMPOSITION 

The  analysis  and  classification  of  figures  of  speech  is 
an  interesting  and  helpful  part  of  the  study  of  literature. 
To  a  large  extent  literature,  as  opposed  to  mere  statement 
of  information,  consists  of  the  happy  use  of  concrete, 
image-making    words    instead   of    general    terms.      The 


414  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

secrets  of  a  great  masior's  style  may  often  be  detectecl 
more  completely  by  a  study  of  his  tropes  tliau  by  any 
other  means.  It  is  true,  also,  that  in  a  small  degree  the 
close  study  of  tropes  as  found  in  literature  Aviil  assist  the 
writer  in  creating  suitable  figures  to  illustrate  and 
embellish  his  thought. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  any  figure, 
any  deviation  from  the  literal  statement  of  the  literal 
truth,  must  be  spontaneous  and,  further,  appropriate 
to  the  case  in  hand.  The  figure  must  grow  out  of  the 
idea  to  be  expressed;  it  should  not  be adided  afterwards  to 
the  idea  as  an  ornament.  We  speak  of  figures  of  speech, 
to  be  sure,  as  ornaments  that  embellish  style;  but  here, 
as  in  every  fine  art,  ornaments,  to  be  appropriate  and 
effective,  must  grow  out  of  the  structure  of  the  thought. 
The  Avriter  can  not  cultivate  figures  of  speech  as  he 
would  roses  in  a  garden,  and  pluck  them  when  he  would, 
to  adorn  his  composition.  lie  must  let  them  grow  nat- 
urally from  the  warmth  of  liis  interest,  fi'om  his  passion 
for  his  subject. 

What  practical  benefit,  tlion,  will  the  student  of  com- 
position derive  from  the  study  of  tropes?  Attention 
given  to  the  subject  will  cultivate  in  him  a  standard  of 
taste :  he  will  know  what  figures  to  use ;  when  to  restrain, 
Avhen  to  give  free  rein  to  his  fancy.  It  has  already  been 
said  that  our  language  is  sown  thick  with  similes,  meta- 
phors, personifications,  etc.  Moreover,  a  writer  seldom 
handles  a  topic  in  which  he  is  interested  without  strikiug 
out  many  new  figures,  some  good,  some  bad.  To  learn 
to  avoid  hackneyed  figures — the  common  property  of  all 
— to  avoid  redundant  or  mixed  or  confused  or  gi'otesqui' 
figures,  and,  lastly,  to  use  a  figure  with  a  strict  concep- 
tion of  its  literal  meaning — these  are  the  results  a  student 
of  composition  should  hope  for  from  a  study  of  figurative 
language. 


APPENDIX  B 

A  large  inimber  of  compositiou-siibjects  that  have  been 
used  successfully  in  schools  are  given  below.  'J'hey  are 
of  varying  degrees  of  difficulty,  and  the  teacher  who 
uses  the  list  should  select  only  those  suitable  for  his 
class.  Frequently  it  will  be  necessary  to  modify  subjects 
chosen  from  the  list,  and  to  give  careful  directions  as 
to  the  use  to  be  made  of  them. 


A.   Subjects  Drawn  from  Literature 


From  "Ivanhoe" 

1.  The  Trial  of  Rebecca. 

2.  The  House  of   Cediic   the 

Saxon. 

3.  Torquilstone  Inside. 

4.  Torquilstone  Outside. 

5.  A  Comparison  of  the  Saxon 

and  Mornian  Anns,  Dress, 
and  Manners. 

6.  Tlie  Castle  of  Templestowe. 

7.  The  Third  Crusade. 

8.  The   Jews    of    Enn;land   in 

the  Twelfth  Century. 

9.  Outlawry   in  the   Time  of 

Richard  I. 

10.  My  Idea  of  the  Appearance 

of  tlie  Field  at  Ashby. 

11.  The  Story  of  Rowena. 
13.  The  Story  of  Gurth. 

13.  The     Story    of    the    Black 

Knight. 

14.  Give    an    Account  of   the 

Interview      between     De 
Bracy  and  Rowena. 

15.  The    Different    Classes    of 

Society     Represented     in 
Ivanhoe. 


From   "Tlie   Vifsion  of  Sir 
LaunfaV 

16.  The   Legend  of    the  Holy 

Grail. 

17.  The  Training  of  a  Knight. 

18.  A  Feudal  Castle. 

19.  Sir  LaunfaFs  Ca.stle  before 

and  after  the  Vision. 

20.  With    Sir  Launfal  outside 

His  Castle. 
From  "Tlie  Last  of  the  Mohi- 
cans'''' 

21.  The  Story  of  Uncas. 

23.  Haw  keye      ( a      character 
sketch). 

23.  Indian    Warfare    as  Por- 

trayed by  Cooper. 

24.  The  Story  of  the  Singing 

Master. 
From  "Silas  Manier"' 

25.  The    New  Year's  Party  at 

the  Red  House. 

26.  Silas   Marner    in    Lantern 

Yard. 

27.  Silas  Marner  in  Raveloe. 

28.  Silas's  Fireplace. 


415 


416 


COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC 


From  "Erangeline'" 

29.  The  Cliildliood  of  Gabriel 

and  Evangeline. 

30.  The  Historical  Foundation 

of  the  Poem  Evangeline. 

From  '"Hie  Christmas  CaroV 

31.  The  Life  of  the  Cratchits. 

32.  Bob   Cratchit's    Christmas 

Dinner. 

33.  Scrooge's  Home. 

34.  Scrooge,  the  Man. 

35.  The  Change  in  Scrooge. 

36.  Why   Observe    Christmas? 

(an  argument). 

From  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake" 


Miscellaneous 
48.  The  Story  of  Pocahontas. 

44.  Tlie  Parting  between  Hec- 

tor and  Andromache. 

45.  Tlie  Death  of  Hector. 

46.  The  Story  of  Enoch  Arden. 

47.  The  Story  of  the  "Prisoner 

of  Chillon." 

48.  The  History  of  the  Alham- 

bra — (briefly). 

49.  The  Story  of    the    Moor's 
Legacy  {The  AUiamhra). 

50.  Indian     Respect     for    the 

Dead. 

51.  The  Treatment  of  the  Jews 

in  the  Middle  Age.s. 

52.  The    Historic    Richard    of 

the  Lion  Heart. 

53.  The    Life    of    an    English 


37. 

Brian's  Appearance 

School    Boy    (from    Tom 

38. 

Brian's    Life    (The 

Effect 

Brown). 

of  Environment). 

54. 

Roosevelt's     Life     in     the 

39. 

The  Glen  of  the  Trosachs. 

West. 

40. 

T  li  e    Journey    < 
Cross. 

3f     the 

55. 

Roosevelt  as   Police  Com- 
missioner. 

41. 

The  Duel. 

56. 

A    Conver.sation    between 

42. 

The  Hunt. 

Priscilla  and  Evangeline. 

B.   Character  Sketches 

Ivanhoe 

Tlie  Merchant  of  Venice 

1. 

Rowena. 

21. 

Portia  as  the  Lady  of  Bel- 

2. 

Rebecca 

mont. 

3. 

Cedric. 

22. 

Portia  as  a  Doctor  of  Law. 

4. 

Gurth. 

23. 

Antonio. 

5. 

Isaac. 

24. 

Bassanio. 

6. 

The  Templar. 

25. 

Sliylock. 

7. 

Ivanhoe. 

26. 

Jessica. 

8. 

Athelstane. 

27. 

The  Character  of  the  Three 

9. 

Prince  John. 

Suitors    as    Revealed    by 

10. 

Richard. 

Their  Choice. 

11. 

Wamba. 

28. 

Portia     and .    Jessica     as 

12. 

Locksley. 

Daughters. 

13. 

Ulrica. 

29. 

Tiie  Light  and  the  Serious 

14. 

De  Bracv- 

Elements      in       Portia's 

15. 

The  Friar. 

Silas  Marner 

Character. 

Miscellaneous 

16. 

Nancy. 

30. 

A  Local  Character. 

17. 

Godfrey. 

31. 

The  Organ  Grinder. 

18. 

Silas  the  Miser. 

32. 

My  Chum. 

19. 

Ep  lie. 

33. 

Our  Doctor. 

20. 

Do  ly  as  Comforter. 

34. 

A  True  Gentleman. 

APPEi^'DIX     B 


417 


35.  The  Newsboy. 

36.  The  Schoolmate  Who  Bor- 

rows. 

37.  Booker  T.  Washinjiton. 

38.  Ellen   Douglas    {The  Ladij 

of  the  Lake). 

39.  Roderick    Dim    {The  Lady 

of  the  Lake). 

40.  Chums  I  Have  Had. 

41.  Our  Next-door  Neighbor. 


42. 


43. 

44. 
45. 
46. 

47. 


Whom  Would  You  Most 
Wish  to  Be  if  You  Were 
Not  Yourself? 

A  Man  I  Saw  in  the  Street 
Car. 

A  Man  I  See  Frequently. 

Our  Grocer. 

Robin  Hood. 

A  'fore  de  War  Darkey. 


C.   Historical  Subjects 


0. 

7. 
8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 

15. 


The  Boston  Tea  Party. 

Paul  Revere  Recounts  His 
Ride. 

The  Landing  of  the  Pil- 
grims. 

Tliree  Scenes  in  the  Life  of 
Nathan  Hale. 

Two  Scenes  in  the  Life  of 
Benedict  Arnold. 

Washington  the  Youth. 

Washington  the  General. 

Washington  the  States- 
man. 

Wasliington  the  President. 

Washington  the  Man. 

Washington  at  Trenton. 

My  Heroine  in  History. 

What  Lincoln  Means  to 
Me. 

The  History  of  the  Town  I 
Live  in. 

A  Christmas  Scene  in 
1776. 


1 G.  For  What  A  re  We  Indebted 
to  the  PuritansV 

17.  What  Did  Alfred  the  Great 

Do  for  England'? 

18.  Custer's  Last  Fight. 

19.  The   Discovery  of  Gold  in 

the  West. 

20.  Jly  Hero  in  History. 

21.  The  Missouri  Compromise. 

22.  The  Battle  of  San  Juan. 

23.  The  Cause  of  the  Trouble 

with  China. 

24.  The  Cause    of   the    South 

African  War. 

25.  Who  Are  the  Boers? 

20.  Present       Conditions       in 
China. 

27.  The  Proposed  Routes  for  the 

Transcontinental  Canal. 

28.  An  Incident  in  the  Life  of 

a  Great  Man. 

29.  Fortress  Monroe. 

30.  Who  Was  St.  Valentine? 


D.   Descriptive  Subjects 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
13. 
13. 


A  Frosty  Morning. 

A  Rainy  Day. 

A  Snow-storm. 

A  Winter  Evening. 

My  Ideal  House. 

An  Old  Garret. 

A  Beautiful  Old  Lady. 

A  Tramp. 

A  Street  Scene. 

Morning  on  a  Farm. 

A  Country  Postoffice. 

A  Dream. 

The  Work  of  a  Spider. 


14.  The  Park  Policeman. 

15.  A  Public  Building. 

16.  The  Oldest  House  in  Town. 

17.  The  Gymnasium. 

18.  The  High  School  Library. 

19.  The  High  School  Building. 

20.  The  New  Church. 

21.  The  Flower  Show. 

22.  The  Teacher's  Desk. 

23.  Your  Own  Desk. 

24.  The  Waste  Basket. 

25.  An  Old  Clock. 

26.  The  School  Pump. 


418 


COilPOSlTIOlS"   AND    RHETORIO 


27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 

35. 
3(3. 

37. 

38. 
39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
4.-,. 
46. 


48. 
4!). 
50. 
51. 
5-2. 
53. 
54. 


The  Belfry. 

Room  No.  1. 

Room  No.  8. 

The  Office. 

A  Beautiful  Tree. 

An  Old  Bridge. 

A  City  Postoffire. 

The  Store  Windows  at 
Christmas. 

Our  Camp. 

My  Favorite  Character  in 
Fiction. 

As  Seen  by  the  School- 
room Clock. 

An  Afternoon  at  the  Races. 

Characteristic  Ways  of 
Sliarpening  Lead  Pencils. 

A  Flower  Parade. 

The  Japanese  Jugglers. 

A  Corncob  Sham  Battle. 

Picking  Cherries. 

In  the  Hav  Field. 

The  Best  Winter  Sport. 

Ten  Minutes  on  a  Street 
Corner. 

An  Interesting  Relic. 

A  Deserted  Farmhouse. 

The  New  House. 

Tlie  Canning  Factory. 

Tlie  Grain  Elevator. 

A  Storm  on  the  Ocean. 

Our  Back  Yard. 

Our  Household  Pet. 


55. 
56. 
57. 

58. 


59. 

00. 
61. 
6-2. 
63. 

04. 

05. 

00. 
67. 
68. 
69. 

70. 
71. 


My  Room. 

A  Pretty  Garden. 

Five  Minutes  at  the  Win- 
dow. 

The  Sounds  Heard  in  Five 
Minutes  in  the  Middle  of 
a  Busy  Day. 

A  Description  of  an  Heir- 
loom. 

The  House  across  the  Way. 

A  Bakery  at  Five  A.  M. 

A  Bakery  at  Five  P.  M. 

The  Indian  Corn  Festival. 

W  here  the  Woodpecker 
Builds. 

Sounds  Heard  in  the 
Woods. 

A  College  Boat  Race. 

The  Beaver. 

A  Fire  Engine. 

Bird  Life  around  My 
Home. 

The  Latest  Air  Sliip. 

The  First  Locomotive. 

A  Dairy. 

My  Little  Black  Kitten  and 
Her  Ways. 

People  Who  Pass  My  Win- 
dow. 

Swallows  and  Tlieir  Homes. 

A  Peanut  Stand. 

My  Flower  Bed. 


E.   Naurative  Subjects 


1.  A  Day  at  the  County  Fair.  10. 

2.  Caught  in  the  Rain. 

3.  How  I  Learned  to  Skate.  11. 

4.  Mv     Experience     witli      a  12. 

Peddler. 

5.  Mi.ssing  tlie  Train.  18. 

6.  The    Trials    of    a     Letter  14. 

Carrier. 

7.  An   Adventure  on    Horse-  15. 
^back.  10. 

8.  Crossing  the  Ocean. 

9.  Tlie  Circus — Unloading  the  17. 

Animals;   The   Crowd:  A  18. 

Side     Show;    The    Trick  19. 

Horses ;  The  Trained  Ele-  30. 
phants. 


Fido's  Adventures  Told  by 

Himself. 
Hunting  Rabbits. 
A    Story   Suggested    by  a 

Picture. 
A  Ride  in  an  Automobile. 
Mv    Fii'st    Punishment    in 

Scliool. 
My  Worst  Day  in  School. 
My    First     Experience    in 

Baking  Cake. 
A  Quarrel. 
My  First  Circus. 
A'Muddy  W^ieel  Ride. 
My     First     Visit     to     the 

Dentist. 


APPElfDIX    B 


419 


21. 
23. 

23. 

24. 


26. 

37. 
38. 
39. 
30. 

31. 

33. 
33. 


Grandma's  Story.  34. 

My  First  Swim  across  the  35. 

River.  36. 

His  First  Shot.  37. 

Following  the  Band.  38. 

When  Our  House  Caught  39. 

Fire. 

How  I  Spent  a  Night  in  the  40. 

Woods.  41. 

A  Piece  of  News.  43. 
A  Modern  Fairy  Tale. 

A  Fable.  43. 
One  Trip  with  My  Friend 

tlie  Engineer.  44. 

How  We  Won  the  Basket-  45. 

ball  Game.  46. 
The  Story  of  a  Wolf. 
A  Street  Car  Incident. 


The  Tramp's  Story. 

A  Night  in  the  Woods. 

The  Chicago  Fire. 

Our  First  Class  Meeting. 

When  I  Was  a  "Freshie." 

My  Experience  as  a  Re- 
porter. 

The  End  of  the  Term. 

An  Old  Legend. 

When  the  Schoolhouse 
Was  on  Fire. 

When  We  First  Got  Our 
Telephone. 

A  Snow  Battle. 

Catching  the  Pony. 

My  Disobedience  and  Its 
Penalty. 


F.   Unclassified  Subjects 


1.  A  Local  Industry.  30. 

2.  The   Means  of  Transporta- 

tion in  Our  Town.  31. 

3.  Our  Public  Library.  23. 

4.  Industries  of  This  Town.  33. 

5.  Public  Amusements  in  the      24. 

Winter.  2~}. 

6.  The    Need    of    Street    Im- 

provements. 36. 

7.  What    I   Would    Do  with 

$100.  37. 

8.  My  First  Impression  of  the      38. 

High  School. 

9.  How     I     Should    Like    to      39. 

Spend  a  Day. 

10.  A  Trip  I  Want  to  Take.  30. 

11.  Learning  to  Row. 

13.  Halloween  Sports.  31. 

13.  How  Some  of  My  School- 

mates Study. 

14.  Why   I   Didn't  Know  My 

Lesson.  33. 

15.  The    Differences    between 

High     School     and     the 
Grades.  33. 

16.  Examination      Week  •  (or 

"Cramming"). 

17.  Why  We  Should  Have  a      34. 

School  Paper. 

18.  Learning  to  Milk.  35. 

19.  An  Intelligent  Pet, 


A  Visit  to  the  Glass- 
works. 

Making  Maple  Sugar. 

Belgian  Hares  as  Pets. 

My  First  Biscuits. 

Slippery  Sidewalks. 

How  to  Mend  a  Bicycle 
Tire. 

With  the  Thermometer 
near  Zero. 

Why  Study  Mythology? 

Why  Study  Ancient  His- 
tory? 

Do  Words  Have  an  Indi- 
viduality? 

How  Would  You  Apply  for 
a  Business  Position? 

What  Do  Business  Men 
Expect  or  Require  .of 
Young  Men  and  Women 
in  Their  Emploj"? 

Fitting  Up  a  Neighbor- 
hood (Amateur)  Tele- 
phone. 

In  What  Ways  Has  the 
Study  of  Rhetoric  Helped 
You? 

How  Can  We  Improve  Our 
School  Paper? 

Why  Are  You  in  the  High 
School? 


420 


rOMPOSTTION    AXD    RHETORIC 


3G.  Wliat  Is  the  Consumers" 
League  Endeavoring  to 
Accomplish  V 

37.  The  Tuskegee  Institute. 

38.  Manual    Training    in    Our 

Scliool. 

39.  How    Do    Oratorical  Con- 

tests Help  a  SchoolV 

40.  Of  What  Value  Is  a  School 

Cymnasium'? 

41.  Wl'iat   Provision   Does  the 

Government  Make  for  the 
Imlian? 
4'2.  In   What  Ways  Is    Japan 
Advancing? 

43.  The   Empress   Dowager  of 

China. 

44.  What   Ave    the    Qualifica- 

tions of  a  Good  Steuogra- 

pherV 
4.").  How    May    You    Increase 

Your  Vocabulary? 
46.  Why  Should  a  City  Own 

and     Operate     a      Stone 

Crusher? 
■17.  How  Would  You  Arrange 

with    Other    Schools   for 

an  Athletic  Meet? 

48.  Make  Suggestions  as  to  the 

Best  Metliods  of  Studying 
Your  Le.sson,  a.  in  His- 
tory, b.  in  Latin. 

49.  A  Dialogue. 

50.  A  Century  Hence. 

51.  A  Good  Play. 

52.  An     Explanation     of     the 

Rules  of  Football  1)y  the 
Boys  of    a  Class,  to  tiie 
Girls. 
53.'  The     Process     of     Laying 
Asphalt  Paving.    » 

54.  A  Reproduction  of  the  Ser- 

mon I  Heard  Last  Sun- 
day. 

55.  Write     an    Advertisement 

for     the     Next     Football 
Game. 
5(5.   The  S])arrows  in  Our  Yard. 

57.  Tlie     Birds    in   Our    Bird- 

house. 

58.  Which  Is  the  More  Satis- 

factory, Brick  or  Asphalt 
Paving? 


59. 
60. 
61. 
63. 

63. 
64. 

65. 

66. 
67. 

68. 
69. 
70. 

71. 
72. 

73. 

74. 


77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 

81. 
82. 
83. 

84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 


Wliich  Do  You  Prefer  and 
Why — One  or  Two  Ses- 
sions a  Day? 

Should  All  the  Pupils  in 
the  Schools  Be  Compelled 
to  Be  Vaccinated? 

The  Account  of  a  Football 
Game  Written  by  the 
Girls. 

Should  Those  Pupils  Who 
Are  Excused  from  Vac- 
cination on  Account  of 
Physical  Conditions  Be 
Admitted  to  School? 

Explain  the  Theory  of  Vac- 
cination. 

Write  for  the  School  Paper 
a  Report  of  the  Monthly 
Declamation. 

Traveling  in  the  Next 
Century. 

Nicola  Te.sla. 

Is  School  Debating  Worth 
While? 

The  Uses  of  Liquid  Air. 

The  Legion  of  Honor. 

Three  Ways  of  Obtaining 
Salt. 

The  Rainbow. 

Indian  Tattooing  and 
Painting. 

The  Plan  for  Widening  the 
Erie  Canal. 

Tiie  Street  Railway  Power 
Station. 

How  the  Foundation  Is 
Constructed. 

A  Half  Hour  at  Marshall 
Field's,  or  Any  Other  De- 
partment Store. 

Glass  Blowing. 

Glass  Cutting. 

Three  Minutes  of  Silence. 

The  Election  of  Our  Maga- 
zine Editor. 

My  Ideal  Vacation. 

•My  Ideal  Village. 

When  I  Shall  Be  Twenty, 
one. 

Before  I  Was  Six. 

If  I  Were  a  Fairy. 

If  I  Were  an  Editor. 

"Seeing  Tilings  at  Night." 


APPENDIX    B 


421 


88.  In  the  Nursery.  91. 

89.  When  I  Had  the  Measles.        92. 

90.  My  Visit  to  a  House-boat. 


Local  Superstitions. 
The     Trans-Siberian 
way. 


Rail- 


G.   Subjects  for  Short  Themes 


1.  My  First  Day  in  the  High  83. 

School. 

2.  My  Feelings  on  Examina-  3::?. 

tiou  Day.  'Si. 

3.  On     Getting    Up     in     the 

Morning.  35. 

4.  On     Passing    a      Lighted  36. 

House.  37. 

5.  The  Street  at  Nightfall.  38. 

6.  My  Air  Castle.  39. 

7.  People  One  Would  Wish  to  40. 

Have  Known. 

8.  My  First  Allowance.  41. 

9.  Around  the  Hearth  Fire. 

10.  A  Bonfire.  42. 

11.  An  Anecdote  of  a  Child. 

12.  My  Pet  Dog.  43. 

13.  A  Boys'  Circus.  44. 

14.  A  Pin  Show.  45. 

15.  My       First       Autograph  46. 

Album. 

16.  The  Naughtiest  Day  of  My  47. 

Life.  48. 

17.  Keeping  a  Diary.  49. 

18.  How  My  Themes  Get  Lost.  50. 

19.  A  Great  Emergency.  51. 

20.  A  Sleigh  Ride.  52. 

21.  My  Cherished  Doll.  53. 

22.  On  Planning  to  Study. 

23.  My      English      Recitation  54. 

Room.  55. 

24.  The  High  School  Assembly  56. 

Room.  57. 

25.  One  Day  of  My  Last  Vaca-  58. 

tion. 

26.  A  Sleighing  Party.  59. 

27.  My  Christmas  Vacation. 

28.  The   View  from    My  Win-  60. 

dow.  61. 

29.  What  Happened  as  I  Came  62. 

to  School  This  Morning. 

30.  The  Beggar  Tliat  Came  to  63. 

Our  House  This  Morning.  64. 

31.  The    Story    of  a  Drop    of  65. 

Water.  66. 


The  Experiences  of  a  Silvei 
Dollar. 

A  Summer  Camp. 

The  Boy  That  Sits  Next  to 
Me. 

The  Snow  Man. 

Our  Cooking  Club. 

The  Way  to  Fairy-land. 

A  Day  in  the  Hay  field. 

The  Story  of  a  Lost  Dog. 

The  Crow  and  the  Scai'e- 
crow. 

The  History  of  My  Work 
Basket. 

My  Visit  to  the  Children's 
Hospital. 

Pictures  in  the  Fire. 

A  Day  in  the  Country. 

A  Sheaf  of  Wheat. 

The  Boy  That  Always  For- 
got. 

Tlie  Old  Swimming  Hole. 

A  Picture  I  Like. 

An  Exciting  Moment. 

A  Shop  Window. 

A  County  Fair. 

A  Runaway. 

How  I  Spent  This  Morn- 
ing. 

The  Curious  Act  of  a  Bird. 

That  Fourth  of  July. 

An  Adventure.  • 

A  Day  in  a  Berry  Patch. 

The  First  Time  I  Saw  a 
Play. 

An  Old  -  fashioned  Tea 
Party. 

Examination  Memories. 

The  Woods  in  Winter. 

An  Old-fashioned  Fire- 
place. 

A  Husking  Bee. 

The  Schools  of  Long  Ago. 

A  Day  on  the  Beach. 

An  August  Noon. 


422 


COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 


67.  A  Baby  That  I  Know.  101. 

68.  A  True  American.  103. 

69.  The  Mysterious  Ways  of  103. 

Girls.  104. 

70.  The    Little  Girl    Who  105. 

Wouldn't  Say  Her  Pray-  106. 
ers. 

71.  A  Twentieth  Century  Rip  107. 

Van  Winkle. 

72.  This  Town  Twenty  Years  108. 

from  Now.  109. 

78.  The  Lunch  Room.  110. 

74.  My  First  Teacher.  111. 

75.  01(1  English  Cookery.  113. 

76.  Christmas      Customs      in 

Foreign  Lands.  113. 

77.  Some   Extremes  of  Fash-  114. 

ion.  115. 

78.  The  Game  We  Lost.  116. 

79.  The  Game  We  Won.  117. 

80.  When  I  Believed  in  Santa 

Claus.  118. 

81.  When  My  Mother  Was  a 

Girl.  119. 

82.  When     My    Grandfather 

Was  a  Boy.  120. 

83.  My  First  Partv.  121. 

84.  The  Time  I  Disobeyed.  122. 

85.  At  the  Social.  123. 

86.  A  Fairy-land  of   Ice  and  124. 

Snow.  125. 

87.  Our  Milk-man. 

88.  Alone  in  the  House.  126. 

89.  When  Mother  Was  Away. 

90.  When      We      Made      Ice  127. 

Cream.  128. 

91.  Wlien  We  Made  Fudges.  129. 

92.  Wlien    We    Dyed    Easter  130. 

Eggs.  131. 

93.  The   Funny   Boy   of    Our  132. 

School.  133. 

94.  The  Giggling  Girl  of  Our  134. 

School.  135. 

95.  The  Peddler. 

96.  The  Book  Agent.  136. 

97.  The  Burglar  That  Came  to  137. 

Our  House.  138. 

98.  The  Fiddler  on  the  Corner.  139. 

99.  When  the  Baby  Had  His  140. 

Picture  Taken.  141. 

100.  The  Pine  Grove  in  Mid-  142. 
winter. 


Boj-s  as  Inventors. 

Saturday  Resolutions. 

The  Season  I  Most  Enjoy. 

My  Home-made  Sled. 

My  Home-made  Wagon. 

Our  Choir  on  Easter  Sun- 
day. 

]\Iy  Play-House  in  the  Old 
Apple  Tree. 

Our  Morning  Exercises. 

Street  Musicians. 

A  Dry  Goods  Store. 

A  Country  Store. 

A  Description  of  the 
Mayor. 

An  Office  Desk. 

A  Bank  Safe. 

A  Boy's  Room. 

A  Girl's  Room. 

A  Manufacturing  Estab- 
lishment. 

Life  on  a  Farm — Haying, 
Husking,  or  Threshing. 

A  Trip  to  the  Woods  in 
Spring. 

The  Woods  in  Autumn. 

How  to  Make  a  Kite. 

How  to  Get  a  Dinner. 

How  to  Build  a  Boat. 

A  Christmas  Dinner. 

What  Happens  Thanks- 
giving Day. 

A  New  Year's  Day 
Party. 

The  Bluebird. 

The  Oriole. 

The  Woodpecker. 

Tlie  Crow. 

The  Blue  Jay. 

Why  Birds  Migrate. 

Birds'  Nests. 

Are  Animals  Happy? 

How  My  Dog  Shows  His 
Feelings. 

Tlie  Oak. 

The  Willow. 

The  Pine. 

Tlie  Maple. 

Tlie  Evergreen. 

Shade  Trees. 

The  Effects  of  Forests  on 
Climate. 


APPENDIX    B 


423 


143.  Arbor  Day. 

144.  How  to    Keep  the  Yard 

in  Good  Condition. 

145.  Is  Hunting  Cruel? 

146.  What  a  Boy  Saw  through 
a  Crack  in  the  Fence. 

The  House  in  Which  You 
Were  Born. 

Your  Opinions  of  Exam- 
inations. 

A  Letter  to  a  Friend. 

An  Order  for  Books. 


147. 

148. 

149. 
150. 


151. 

153. 

153. 
154 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 


An  Invitation  to  a  Formal 

Reception. 
An    Acceptance    and    a 

Regret. 
Our  Camp  on  the  Lake. 
A  Spring  Flood. 
A  Voting  Booth. 
A  Dutch  Windmill. 
My  Ghost. 

How  I  Earned  a  Dollar. 
Why  the  Tides  Rise. 
My  First  Day  at  School. 


APPENDIX  C 


A   LIST  OP  THE   COMMONER  ABBREVIATIONS  IN  GOOD  USE 

[The  abbreviations  marked  with  an  asterisk  may  be  used  with  the  full 
name  only;  e.g.,  Prof.  Arthur  Jones,  Capt.  J.  M.  Manly,  but  Professor  Jones, 
Captain  Manly.] 


A.B.  or  B.A.   {Artium  Bacca- 

laureus).    Bachelor  of  Arts. 
A.D.   (anno  clomiiu').      In   the 

year  of  our  Lord, 
ad  ib.  (ad  libitum).     At  pleas- 
ure. 
A.M.  or  M.A.   (Artium  3Iagis- 

ter).     Master  of  Arts, 
aet.  (aetate).     Aged. 
a.m.   (ante  meridiem).    Before 

noon. 
B.C.     Before  Christ. 
B.S.     Bachelor  of  Science. 
Capt.*    Captain. 
C.  E.     Civil  Engineer, 
cf.  (Latin  confer).     Compare. 
C.O.D.     Collect  on  delivery. 
Col.*    Colonel. 

D.C.L.     Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
Dr.      Doctor.      ( In     America, 

hardly   ever    used    except 

for  doctors  of  divinity  or 

medicine.) 
D.D.     Doctor  of    Divinity. 

(Used  only  after  a  proper 

name.) 
e.g.    (exempli    gratia).     For 

example. 
Esq.      Esquire.      ( Used     only 

after  a  proper  name.     i\Ir. 

and    Es(i[.    should    not    be 

u.sed  together.) 
etc.  (et  cetera).     And  so  forth. 
F.R.S.     Fellow   of    the  Royal 

Society. 
Gen.*    General. 
Gov.*    Governor, 
ibid,  and  id.  (ibidem).     In  the 

same  place — a  term  used 

to      indicate      a      source 

already  quoted. 
i.e.  (id  est).     That  is. 


inst.  (mense  instante).  The 
present  month. 

Jr.  Junior.  (Used  after  a 
proper  name.) 

Lieut.*     Lieutenant. 

LL.B.  (Legum  Baccalaureus). 
Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.D.  (Legum  Doctor).  Doc- 
tor of  Laws. 

m.  (meridies).     Noon. 

M.  (Monsieur).  The  French 
abbreviation  correspond- 
ing to  our  '"Mr."'  The 
pliu-al  is  MM. 

Mgr.  (Monseigneur).  The  title 
of  a  dignitary  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Mr.  Mister.  (The  plural  is 
"Messrs."). 

Mrs.  (Hardly  an  abbreviation, 
since  "Mistress,''  the  full 
form  of  the  word,  is  never 
used  in  this  sense. ) 

Mile.  ( Mademoiselle ).  The 
French  equivalent  of  our 
"Miss." 

Mme.  (Madame).  The  French 
equivalent  of  our  "Mrs." 

M.C.     Member  of  Congress. 

]\I.P.     Member  of  Parliament. 

MS.  Manuscript.  (The  plural 
is  MSS.) 

N.B.  (nota  bene).  Take 
notice. 

Ph.D.  (Philosophiae  Doctor). 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

p.m  ( post  meridiem).  After- 
noon. 

p.p.c.  (pour  prendre  conge). 
An  abbreviation  put  upon 
the  visiting  card  left  wlien 
one  is  making  a  final  visit. 


424 


APPENDIX    C 


m 


Pres.*    President. 

Prof.*    Professor. 

pro  tern,  {jiro  tempore).  For 
the  time  being. 

prox.  {proximo).    Next  month. 

P.S.  {post  scriptum).  Post- 
script. 

Q.E.D.  {quod  erat  demonstran- 
dum). Which  was  to  be 
proved. 

q.  V.  {quodiride).    "Which  see. 

stet.  {let  it  stand).  An  ab- 
breviation nsed  to  let  a 
proof-reader  know  that  an 
erased  passage  is  to  be 
restored. 

The  Hon.  Tlie  Honorable. 
("Hon."  and  "Honorable" 


are  not  to  be  i.sed  witliont 
"The,"  and  are  not  to  be 
used  with  a  surname  only ; 
e.g.,  not  "Hon.  Jones,"  hut 
"The  Hon.  J.  R.  Jones.") 

The  Rev.  The  Reverend.  (The 
rule  just  stated  for  "Hon." 
holds  also  for  "Rev." ;  e.g.. 
not  "Rev.  Smith,"  hut 
"The  Rev.,  or  Reverend, 
M.  C.  Smith.") 

ult.  {ultimo).     Last  month. 

U.  S,  A.    United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  N.    United  States  Na%-y. 

U.  S.  M.    United  States  Mail. 

vid.  {vide).     See. 

viz.  {videlicet).  To- wit,  namely. 


APPENDIX  D 


ABBREVIATIONS  AND  SIGNS  FOR  USE  IN    CORRECTING  THEMES 


1, 


5. 


Ms.     Illegible  manuscript. 

sp.     Fault  in  spelling. 

p.     Fault  in  punctuation. 

cap.     Capital  letter  needed. 

1.  c.  ("lower  case").   Small  let- 
ter instead  of  a  capital. 
3,  etc.     Rearrange  as  the 
numbers  indicate. 
(  The    printer's    abbrevia- 
tion of  "dele.")     Omit. 
Some  fault  too  obvious  for 
comment. 

Sometliing  necessary  to 
thought  or  construction 
omitted. 

B.     Barbarism. 

I.     Imin-opriety. 

R.  or  W.     Redundant,  tautol- 
ogous,  verbose,  or    prolix. 

V.    Vague. 


X. 

A. 


G.     Fault  in  grammar. 

U.     Sentence  lacks  unity. 

Co.    Sentence  lacks  coherence. 

E.     Sentence  lacks  emphasis. 

IT-     Paragraph  here. 

No  T[.     No  paragraph  here. 

*i]  U.     Paragraph  lacks  unity. 

^[Co.  Paragraph  lacks  coher- 
ence. 

^  E.  Paragraph  lacks  emphasis. 

O.     Obscure. 

A.     Ambiguous. 

M.  Unskillful  use  of  figurative 
language. 

K.     Clumsy. 

T.     In  bad  taste. 

Coll.  Unduly  colloquial,  or 
undignified. 

quots.  Quotation  marks 
needed. 


426 


INDEX 


References  are  to  pages 


A. 


A,  omitted,  202 

Abbreviations,  165 

Abhorrence  of,  211 

Absolve  from,  211 

Accede,  cede,  176 

Accept,   except,   176 

Acceptance,    acceptation,    180 

Access,  accession.  180 

Accord  with,  211 

Accuracy  and  individuality  in  the 

choice  of  words,  249 
Accusative  of  specification,  212 
Acquit  of,  211 
Act,  action,  179 
Ad,  advertisement,  165 
Adapted  to,  or  for,  211 
Addison,  Joseph,  12.S,  272 
Adjectives  for  adverbs,  199 
Admire,   like,  176 
Adverbs  for  adjectives,  199 
Affect,  effect,  175 
Affinity  between,  to,  or  with,  211 
Aggravate,   provoke,    17C 
Agree  to,  with,  211 
Ain't,  143,  163 

All,  as  a  pronoun,  number  of,  201 
Allow,   guess,    think.    176 
Allude,  elude,  mention,  176 
Alone,  only,  184 
Alternative,  choice,  180 
Ambiguity,    282-286 
Americanisms       and      Anglicisms, 

152 
Among,  between,  184 
And,  misuse  of,   203 
Antimacassar,    tidy,   153 
Approach,  appeal  to,  176 
Apt,   likely,   liable,   184 
Argument   defined,   393  ;    must   be 

about  a  proposition,  394  ;    must 


be  about  a  debatable  proposi- 
tion, 394  ;  proposition  must  be 
definitely  stated,  394 ;  terms 
must  be  defined,  394 ;  nature 
and  necessity  of  proof,  395 ; 
arguments  divisible  into  intro- 
duction, proof,  and  conclusion, 
395  ;  necessity  of  an  outline  or 
brief.  396 ;  nature  of  a  brief. 
396 ;  important  laws  in  argu- 
ment are  coherence  and  climax. 
3!)9  :  unity  in  argument,  399  ; 
value  of  argument  in  learning 
to  write,  399 

Arnold,  Matthew,  189,  306,  310, 
337 

As,  that,  184 

Assist,  be  present,  176 

Authoress,   165 

Averse  from,  or  to,  211 

Avocation,  vocation,  180 

Awfully,  very,  183 

B. 

Babe,  baby,   148 

BafHe,   147 

Balance,  remainder,  180 

Banquette,  sidewalk,  148 

Barbarisms   defined,    162 ;     slang, 

163  ;  obvious  vulgarisms,  163  ; 
vulgarisms    hard    to    recognize, 

164  ;  newspaper  words,  164  ; 
improper  abbreviations.  165 ; 
foreign  words,  165 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  91,  236,  250 

Beadles,  152 

Beat,  a,  164 

Bench,  form,  153 

Blackmore,  R.  D.,  129 

Blind-pig,  148 

Body  of  a  gown,  waist,  152 


427 


428 


COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


Booking  clerk,  ticket  agent,  153 

Booklet,   164 

Brainy,  clever,  154 

Brevity,  value  of,  223 

Briglit,  intelligent,   152 

Britisli  and  American  Englisti,  dif- 
ferences between,  152 

r.noNTE,  Charlotte,  86 

Brooks,  Phillips,  136 

BuowxiNG,    Mrs.,    218 

Bi;nwxiNG,  Robert,  243 

BuYAXT,  W.  C,  list  of  words  and 
ptirases  rejected  by,  158 

Bryce,  James,  58,  82,  100,  271, 
292,   312.  313,   319,   328 

Bullex,  Frank  T.,  63 

BuxTAN,  John,  360 

Bureau,   chest  of  drawers,  153 

Burglarize,  164 

Burke,  Edmund,  123,  304,  328. 
348 

Burxey,   Miss,   188 

C. 

Can,  may,   178 

Cap,  captain,  165 

Car,  carriage,  153 

Careful-hopeful.    155 

(\arlyle,  Thomas,  257,  307 

Carpexter,  G.  R.,  83,  194 

Carroll,  Lewis,  69 

Carven,  162 

Case,  faults  In  ;  nouns,  195  :  pro- 
nouns,  196 

Casuality,    165 

Character,    reputation,    180 

Chemist,   druggist,   153 

Clioice  of  subjects,  24 

Chump.  162 

Churchill,  Wixston,  207 

Cicero,  216.  219 

Claim,  maintain,  176 

Clearness   in    sentences,    282 

Clever,  kind,  148,  185 

Climax.  264  ;  in  narration,  382  : 
in  argument,  399 

Co-ed.   woman  student.   165 

Coelenterata,    162 

Coheronff.  203:  in  descriptive 
writing,  378;  in  narration,  382; 
in  argument,  399 


Coherence  in  sentences.  282-298 ; 
defined,  282 ;  ambiguity  de- 
structive of,  282 ;  ambiguity 
deflned.  282 ;  ambiguous  ar- 
rangement of  words,  283  ;  am- 
biguous pronouns,  284  ;  -ambig- 
uous participles,  286  ;  incoher- 
ence from  misuse  of  connec- 
tives, 287 ;  incoherence  from 
shifts  of  construction,  288 : 
some  ways  of  securing  coher- 
ence, 291 

Coherence  in  paragraphs,  326 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  146.  235,  240 

Collective  nouns,  number  of,  200 

Colon,  the,  119 

Combine,   a,  164 

Comma,  the,  115 

Comma  blunder,  81 

Comparative,   superlative,  198 

Complected,  163 

Complementary  infinitives,  tense 
of,   291 

Composition  deflned,  15 ;  object 
of  studying,  15  ;  oral,  value  of. 
IV  ;  various  kinds  of,  10  ;  spo- 
ken and  written,  differences  be- 
tween,   18 ;     pleasure    in,    19 

Concertize,  to,   164 

Conclusions,   351 

Concordances,  value  of,  102 

Condign,   great,   185 

Condone,   atone  for,   176 

Confliction,   165 

Conjunctions,  false  correlation  of, 
201 

Connectives,  263,  287,  327,  347 

Contemptible,  contemptuous,  185 

Continual,  continuous.  185 

Continuously,  continually,  183 

Contractions,  when  proper,  18 

Coranto,  149 

Corporal,  corporeal,  185 

Council,  counsel,  180 

Crayonize,  to,  164 

Cross-gartered,  147 

Culture,  to,  164 

Curios,     curiosities,     165 

Cut,   be  absent,   148 

Cute,  acute,  165 


INDEX 


439 


D. 

Dangerous,  in  danger,  185 

Dash,  the.  120 

Deadly,  deathly,  185 

Decimate,  destroy,  176 

Defalcate,  164 

Definite,  definitive,  185 

Defoe,  Daniel,  77,  129. 

Defy,  a,  164. 

Demean,  degrade,  debase,  177 

Depot,  railway  station,  180 

De  Quincet,  Tiiojias,  259,  305 

Descriptive  and  narrative  writing, 
374-389 ;  descriptive  writing 
deals  with  objects,  376 ;  its 
purpose  is  identification,  376 ; 
literary  description,  377  ;  unity 
and  coherence  in,  378  ;  interest 
of,   379 

Dickens,  Charles,  78,  123,  125, 
127,  205 

Diction,    223-260 

Directly,  as  soon  as,   184 

Disappoint,  a,  164 

Discover,   invent,  177 

Discrimination  in  the  choice  of 
words,  234-260;  good  diction. 
234  ;  style,  234  :  "fine  writing"' 
a  fault,.  234  ;  euphemism,  235  ; 
newspaper  diction,  236 ;  ora- 
torical diction,  237  ;  sentimen- 
tal diction,  238 ;  triteness  a 
form  of  "fine  writing,"  238 ; 
simplicity,  value  of,  240  ;  sug- 
gestive power  of  words,  242 ; 
specific  and  general  words,  244  ; 
figures  of  speech  an  aid  to  sug- 
gestion, 247  ;  faults  of  figura- 
tive diction,  247  ;  accuracy  and 
individuality,  249 
-Disremember,  163 

Distinct,   distinctive,    185 

Doc,   doctor,   165 

Double  conjunctions,  false  correla- 
tion of,  201 

Double  subject  and  object,  203 

Doubtlessly,  165 

DnYDEN,  John,  192 

Dumas,  A..  214 

Dv  Maukiek,  G.  L.,  129,  256,  257 


E. 

Each,  as  a  pronoun,  number  of, 
201 

Educator,  teacher,  181 

Either...  or,  neither. .  .nor,  with 
two  subjects  different  in  num- 
ber, 201  ;  the  proper  combina- 
tions, 201  ;  position  of,  284 

Either,  as  a  pronoun,  number  of, 
201 

Either,  any,  201 

Electrocute,   156 

Elegant,  excellent,  pleasing,  185 

Elevator,  lift,  153 

Eliminate,  elicit,  177 

Eliot,  George,  269,  380 

Emigration,  immigration,  181 

Eminent,  prominent,  185 

Emphasis,  264  ;  in  sentences,  308  ; 
in  the  paragraph,  330 

Engine-driver,  engineer,  153 

Enormity,  enormousness,  181 

Enthuse,  to,  164 

Etherege,  George,  192 

Euphemism,  235 

Exam,  examination,  165 

Except,  unless,   184 

Exceptional,  exceptionable,  185 

Exclamation,  marks  of,  119 

Excursiouate,    164 

Expect,  suppose,  177 

Expository  and  argumentative 
writing,  390-406 ;  exposition, 
subject  matter  of,  390  ;  distin- 
guished from  description,  390  ; 
methods  in,  391  ;  laws  of  com- 
position in,  392  ;  value  of  expo- 
sition in  learning  to  write,  399 

Expression,  the  object  of  study,  15 

Extend,  give,  177 


Fake,  164 

Farrier,   blacksmith.   153 

Female,  woman.  181 

Figures  of  speech,  value  of,  247  ; 
faults  of  figurative  diction,  247 

Finding  material  to  write  about, 
(1)  reporter's  method,  27;  (2) 
from  books,  28  ;    (3)  from  other 


430 


COMPOSITION"   AXD    RHETORJ'^ 


studies.  30:  (4)  from  newspa- 
pers and  magazines.  30 

"Fine  writing"  a  fault,  234 

Firstly,  165 

FiSKE,  John.  344 

Fix,   154,   178 

Flunk.  148 

Fly.  flee,  flovc,  177 

Folks,   family,   154,  165 

Footless,    incompetent,    148 

Force  in  sentences.  290-317  :  part- 
ly dependent  on  form  of  sen- 
tences. 299  ;  long  and  short 
sentences,  301  ;  loose  and  peri- 
odic sentences,  304  ;  devices  for 
gaining  periodicity,  307 ;  em- 
pliasis  in  sentences,  308 

Ford,  P.   L.,  298' 

Forelianded,  148 

Foreign  nouns,  plurals  and  singu- 
lars of,  196 

L'oreign  words,  151,   165 

Form,  bench,  153 

G. 

Galerie,  veranda.  148 

Galliard,  147 

Gkikie,  a.,  160 

(ientleman,  man.   181 

Gents,  gentlemen,  165 

Gesture,  to,   164 

Glaustonk,  W.  E.,  189 

Goldbug.    147 

Goldsmith,  OLiVEn,  64,  86,  206 

Good  Use,  the  basis  of,  143 ;  a 
relative  term.  144  :  reasons  for 
it,  144;  defined,  145;  throe  re- 
quirements of,  150  ;  present  use, 
146;  national  use,  148;  local- 
isms, 148 ;  technical  words. 
149  ;  foreign  words,  151  ;  Amer- 
icanisms and  Anglicisms,  152  : 
reputable  use,  154  ;  new  words 
often  necessary,  155 ;  unneces- 
sary new  words,  156 ;  how  to 
get  a  reputable  vocabulary, 
156 ;  words  and  phrases  re- 
jected by  William  Culleu  Bry- 
ant, 158;  barbarisms,  162-167; 
improprieties.  168-193:  gram- 
mar   or    good    use    in    the    sen- 


tence. 194-20y:  solecisms  de- 
fined, 194  ;  list  of  solecisms, 
195-203  ;  idiom  and  translation 
English,   210-221 

Goods-train,  freight-train,  153 

Gkahame,  Kenneth,  69,  109,  259 

Grammar,  equals  good  use  in  the 
sentence,  194  ;  violations  of,  or 
solecisms,  194 ;  three  general 
statements  regarding,  194  ;  list 
of  solecisms.  195-203 

Grant,  U.  S.,  240 

Green,   J.   R.,   329 

Greenough  and  Kittredge,  150, 
242 

Guard,  conductor,  153 

H. 

Haberdasher,  men's  furnisher,  153 
Hanged,  hung.  178 
Hardly,  with  a  negative,  199 
Hawthorne,   Nathaniel,  84,   87, 

122,  124,  125,  204,  206,  300 
Healthy,     healthful,     wholesome, 

186 
He  don't,  he  doesn't,  144 
Hewlett,  M..  257,  258 
Hill,  A.  S.,  153,  211 
HoDGSox,  181,  183 
Holmes,  O.  W.,  60,  123 
Horrid,   unpleasant,   186 
House,  home,  181 
Hughes,  Thomas,  383 
Hico,   Victor,  220 
Humans,   165 
Hustings,  152 
Huxley,  T.  H.,  149 

I. 

Idiom     and      translation-English, 
210-221  :      idiom    defined,    210 
unidiomatic  phrasing,  211';    un 
idiomatic     constructions,     212 
nominative  absolute,    212 ;     ac 
cusative    of    specification,    212 
unidiomatic  order  of  words,  213  ; 
miscellaneous  faults  of  idiom  in 
translation    (punctuation,  para- 
graphing,   etc.).   213;     transla- 
tion-English, 213 

HI,  sick.  153 


INDEX 


431 


Illy.  165 

Impracticable,  impassable,  186 

Improprieties    defined,    168    (each 

impropriety   is  to  be   looked  up 

under  its  own  initial) 
In,  into.  184 

Inaugurate,  commence,  begin,  178 
In  course.  163 
Indecided,  165 

Indicative  for  subjunctive,  197 
Individual,  man,  woman,  181 
Individuality   in   choice  of  words. 

249 
Interrogation,  marks  of.  119 
Introductions.   341 
Invention,  discovery,  181 
Invite,  an,  164 
Irving,  Washington,  89,  97 
Italics,  122 

J. 

.Tames,  Henry,  206 
Jeffries,  Richard,  128 
Johnson,  Samuel,  805 
Jug.  pitcher,  153 
Just  as  leaves,  163 

K. 
Keats.  John,  243 
Kipling^    Rldyard,    81,    91,    124, 

204,    221.    245.    256,    257,    282. 

298,  301,  379 


Lady,  woman,  181 

Lamb,  Charles,  140 

Landor,  W.   S.,   87 

L.\timer,  Bishop,  225 

Lay,   lie,   178 

Learn,  teach,  178 

Leasing,  iying.  147 

Leave,   let,  178 

Less,  fewer.  186 

Letter-writing,  commonest  form 
of  composition,  130  :  value  of, 
130 ;  rigidity  of  forms,  131 : 
business  letters,  131 ;  formal 
letters  in  first  person,  132  ;  for- 
mal letters  in  third  person, 
132  :  informal  notes,  133  ;  forms 
to  be  avoided,  133 


Lie.   lay,   178 

Lift,   elevator,   153 

Like,  as,  184 

Limit,    limitation,    182 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  87,  88,  241 

Literarian,  a,   155 

LivY.   220 

Loan.    lend.   182 

Lobbyists.   152 

Localisms,  148 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  137 

Lotion,  to,   164    ' 

Love,   like,   155.  178 

Lowell,  James  R.,  110.  206.  255, 

256,  35Q 
Luggage-van,  baggage-car,  153 
Lush,  243 

M. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B..  86.  109, 
284.  285,  313,  314.  328.  331, 
349 

Mad,  crazy,  168 ;  Mad,  angry, 
186 

Manageress.    165 

Managerial.  164 

Manly,  mannish,  187 

Masterful,   very,   144 

Materialize,   164 

May,   can,   178 

McCarthy,  Justin,  91 

Meredith,  George,  88,  277 

Mob,   103 

Montaigne.  156 

Morris,   125 

Most,  almost,   184 

Motorneer,   motorman.   155 

Mummers.    152 

Mutual,    common,    186 

Myers,  401 

N. 

Narration,  defined.  380  ;  selection 
in.  381  :  coherence,  the  impor- 
tance of,  in.  382 ;  unity,  pro- 
portion and  climax  in,  382 ; 
qualities  of  good  narration,  383 

"Nation,   The,"    331 

National    use,   148 

Negotiate,  sell,  179 

Neither,  none,  201  ;   as  a  pronouoj 


432 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


number   of.    201 
Newspaper  words,  164,  236 
Nice,  pleasant,  attractive,  186 
Nominative   absolute,    186 
None,   as   a  pronoun,   number  of. 

201 
Not,  position  of,  284 
Notorious,  noted,  186 
Nouns,  solecisms,   in,   195 
Number,  faults  in  adjectives,  200  •, 
in  nouns,   196  ;    in    verbs,   200  ; 
confusing  foreign   nouns,  229 
Number  of  words,  223-233  ;    value 
of    brevity,     223 ;     superfluous 
words.   223  ;    redundancy,    223  : 
tautology.  223  ;  verbosity,  223  ; 
superfluous    details,    227 ;     pro- 
lixity, 227 

O. 

Observation,   observance,   182 

Odd,   funny.   186 

Ofif-handed,    165 

Omission  of  words  necessary  to 
sense,  202 

Only,  position  of,  284 

Oral,  verbal.   186 

Oral  composition,  value  of,  17 ; 
differences  between  oral  and 
written  composition,  18 :  the 
two  the  same  at  bottom,  19 

Oratorical   diction.    237 

Original  composition  defined,  374 


Palmer.  G.   II.,  107 

Pants.    154.    162.    165 

Paragraphs,  natural  divisions  of 
a  subject,  53  ;  divisions  easily 
perceived,  54  :  length,  57  ;  par- 
agraphs In  conversation,  55 ; 
topic  sentences,  58 :  develop- 
ment of  descriptive  topic.  59 : 
development  of  narrative  topic. 
60 ;  definition  of  the  single 
paragraph.  318 :  laws  in  sin- 
gle paragraph.  319 :  unity  de- 
fined, 321  :  paragraphs  too  long 
for  unity.  322  :  paragraphs  too 
short  for  unity.  324  :  coherence 
defined^  326  ;    incoherence  from 


faulty  arrangement,  326 :  use 
of  connectives,  327 ;  emphasis 
defined.  330  :  faults  in  empha- 
sis, 330 

Pard,  partner,  165 

Participles,  ambiguous,  286 

Party,  person,  182 

Pate,  243 

Patton,   J.   H.,   206 

Peradventure,  perhaps,  147 

I'erambulator.  baby  carriage,  153 

Period,  the,  119 

Periodicity,   307 

'Phone,  165 

Photo,   photograph,    165 

Phrases  and  clauses  used  as  sen- 
tences, 80,  194 

Plan  or  outline,  345,  396 

Playlet,    164 

Pleasure  in  composition,  19 

Plenty,  plentiful,  182 

Plurals,  errors  in,  196,  200 

Poet-'ss,  165 

"Point    of   View"   of   composition, 
263 

Portion,  part,  182 

Possessive  for  genitive,  195 

Posted,  informed,  186 

Practicable,  practical.  186 

Prairies,  152 

IVepositions.  proper  combinations 
of,  with  other  words.  211 

Present  use,  146 

Preventative,   164 

I'rincipal  parts  of  verbs,  mistakes 
in,  197 

Probate,  to,   164 

Professor,  instructor,  teaeher,  182 

Prolixity,  227 

J'romise.  assure.  179 
Pionours.  solecisms  in,  196:    and 
antecedents,     201  :     ambiguous, 
284 
Proportion,  264  :    in  whol3  compo- 
sition, 342  :  in  summaries,  304  ; 
in  narration,  382 
I'l'oscribe,  prescribe,  179 
Proven,  165 

I'unctuation,   uses  of,   114  :     how 
(o    learn,    115 ;     comma,     118 ; 


IXDEX 


433 


semicolon,  118 ;  colon,  110 
period,  119  ;  marks  of  'iiterro 
gation  and  exclamation,  1]0 
the  dash,  120  ;  the  apostroylie 
J  21;  parentheses  and  brackets 
121 ;  capital  letters,  121  ;  ital 
ics,  122  ;  quotation  marks,  122 
Purpose,  propose,  179 

Q. 

Quantity,  number,  182 
Quite,   very,   rather,   184 
Quotation  marks,  122 

ft 

Railroad,  to,   164 

Railway,  railroad,   153 

Real,   very,   187 

Recipe,   receipt,   183 

Reckon,  154 

Redundancy,  223 

Redundant,   "and,"  203 

Reel  of  cotton,  spool  of  thread. 
153 

Relative,  relation,  183 

Rendition,  rendering,  readinj;. 
playing,  182 

Reportorial,  164 

Reputable  use,  154 

Reputable  vocabulary,  how  to  get, 
156 

Restitute,  to,   165 

Resume,  sum  up,   179 

Revision,    meaning  of.   20 

Rewriting,  meaning  and  value  of. 
20 

Rhetoric,  defined,  16  :  further  ex- 
plained, 16,;  false  use  of  the 
word,  17 

Rhetorical  Principles,  261-267  ; 
nature  of.  261  ;  six  most  impor- 
tant, 262  ;  selection.  262  :  unity, 
262  ;  "point  of  view."  263  ;  co- 
herence. 263  ;  clearness  depends 
upon  coherence.  263  ;  emphasis, 
264  ;  proportion.  264  ;  climax, 
264  ;  necessity  of  observing, 
264 

Right,    duty.    183 

Right  hard,  154 


Rock,   stone,   148 

RusKix,  John,  110,  188,  204,  2-45, 
259,   308 


Scarcely,  with  a  negative,  199 

Scholar,  student,  pupil,  183 

School,  college,  university,  183 

Scoop,    164 

Scott,  Walter,  123,  138,  206, 
207,   283 

Secondhanded,  165 

Selection,  262  ;     in  narration,  381 

Semicolon,   the,   118 

Sentence,  the,  defined,  80  ;  incom- 
plete, 80  ;  the  comma  blunder, 
81  ;  content  of  sentences,  82  ; 
simple,  complex,  and  compound 
sentences  defined,  83 ;  advan- 
tages of  compound  and  complex 
forms,  84  ;  variety  needed,  85  ; 
various  forms  illustrated,  86- 
89 :  unity  in,  268-281  ;  unity 
defined,  268  ;  unity  of  thought, 
269 ;  relation  of  the  sentence 
to  the  paragraph,  271 ;  sen- 
tences too  short  for  unity  of 
thought,  272 ;  unity  of  form, 
273  ;  compound  sentences  often 
destructive  of  unity,  275  ;  clear- 
ness dependent  on  coherence, 
282 ;  coherence  defined,  282 ; 
incoherence  produces  ambiguity, 

282  ;    ambiguous  arrangements, 

283  ;  ambiguous  pronouns,  284  ; 
ambiguous  participles,  286 ; 
misuse  of  connectives,  287 ; 
shifts  of  construction,  288  ;  de- 
vices for  getting  coherence,  291  ; 
monotony  destructive  of  force, 
299 ;  variation  from  long  to 
short  sentences.  301  :  advan- 
tages of  each  type,  302 :  de- 
vices fo_r  gaining  periodicity, 
307 ;  force  dependent  on  em- 
phasis. 308 

Sentimental  diction,  238 
Setox-Thompson,    Ernest,  .  205, 

209,  277 
SiiAKSPERE,  William.  387 
Shall  and  will,  should  and  would. 


434 


COM  POSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 


history  of,  169  ;  sball  and  will 
in  direct  futures,  1G9  ;  in  sim- 
ple indicative  sentences.  170  :  in 
questions,  170 ;  in  subordinate 
clauses,  172  ;  should  and  would, 
special  uses  of,  172 ;  in  main 
clauses,  172  ;  in  questions,  173  ; 
in  indirect  discourse,  174 ;  in 
"if"  clauses,  174 

Sharves,  shafts,  1G3 

Shifts  of  construction,  288 

Should,  1G9 

Shunt,  switch,  153 

Sick,  ill,   152 

Sightlier,    165 

Silverlte,  147 

Simplicity,  value  of,  240 

Single  I'aragraph,  structure  of. 
318-341  ;  definition  of,  318 : 
three  principles  governing,  319  ; 
paragraph  unity  defined,  321 ; 
paragraphs  too  long  for  unity, 
322  :  too  short  for  unity,  31:4  ; 
paragraph  coherence  defined, 
326 :  incoherence  from  faulty 
arrangement,  326  ;  connectives 
an  aid  to  coherence,  327  ;  para- 
graph emphasis,  330 

Singular  antecedents  with  plural 
pronouns,  201 

Sit,  set,  179 

Slang,  163 

So  and  such,  colloquial  use  of,  194 

Solecisms,    list  of,   195-203 

Sources  of  material,  reporter's 
method  of  getting  subjects,  27  : 
subjects  from  books.  28 ;  sub- 
jects from  newspapers  and  mag- 
azines,   30 

SorTHEY,  Robert,  GO,  87,  123 

Spake,   spoke.   148 

Spec,   speculation,  165 

Specific  and  general  words,  244 

Splendid,  pleasant,  187 

Split   infinitive,   197 

State,  say,   179 

Statehouses,    152 

Statue,  statute,  stature,  183 

Steal,  a,  164 

Stephen,  Leslie,  312,  313 


Sterxej  Lawrence,  350 

Stevexs,  95,  110 

Stevensox,  Robert  L..  66,  88.  90, 
100,  111.  124,  129,  247,  256, 
257,  292,  299,  303,  371,  377 

Stoker,  fireman,  153 

Stop,  stay,   179 

Storiette,  164 

Storm,  shower,  183 

Style,  in  choice  of  words,  234  ; 
in   summaries,  366 

Subject,  choice  of.  24  :  dependent 
(1)  on  interest,  24;  (2)  on 
previous  information,  25:  (3) 
on  size  of  topic  and  space,  25  ; 
definite  subjects  the  best,  26 ; 
sources  for  getting,  27-30 

Subjunctive  Mood,  197 

Subordinate  verbs,  tense  of,  291 

Such,  colloquial  use  of,  194 

Suicide,   to.  164 

Summaries,  361-373  ;  defined,  361 ; 
different  methods  of  summariz- 
ing, 362 :  proportion,  364  : 
style,  366 :  summaries  of 
novels,  plays,  etc.,  366 

Superfluous  words,  223;  details, 
227 

Superlative   for   comparative,  198 

Supreme,    last.    187 

Suspicion,    to.    164 

Synonyms,  study  of,   102 

T. 

Talented,    146 

Tart,   pie,   153 

Taswell-Laxgmead,  125 

Tautology,    223 

Team,   carriage,   183 

Technical   words,   149 

Terms  defined,  390 

Thackeray,  W.  M.,  126,  188,  293, 
294,  298 

The,    omitted.    202 

Themes,  defined.  19  ;  suggestions 
regarding,  19 ;  preliminary 
work,  35  ;  first  draft.  36  ;  sec- 
ond form.  37 ;  complete  draft, 
38 :  final  copy,  40 ;  titles  of, 
should  be  brief  and  clear,  48 

These,  those,  this,  that,  198 


INDEX 


435 


'Tis.   it   is.    148 
Titles,    20,   47 
Tolstoi,  218 
Translation-Englisti,    213 
Translation,   value   of,   104 
Transpire,    happen,    179 
Travelogue.  144,   162 
Triteness.   238 
TwAix,  Mark,  89 

U. 

Unbelvnown.    163 

Underhanded.   155 

Unidiomatic  phrasing,  211  ;  con- 
structions. 212  ;  order  of  words. 
213 

Unit.y.  262 ;  in  descriptive  writ- 
ing, 378  ;  in  narration.  382  :  in 
argument,   399 

Unity  in  sentences,  268-281 ;  de- 
fined. 268  :  of  thought,  269  : 
relation  of  sentence  to  para- 
graph, 271  ;  of  form,  273  :  com- 
pound form  often  destructive 
of.  275 

Unity  in  paragraphs.  321-326 

Unity  in  Whole  Composition,  342 

V. 

Verbosity,  223 

Verbs,  solecisms  in,  107 

Vest,   waistcoat.   154 

Vir,  in  translation,  105 

Vocabulary,  advantages  of  a  large, 


96 ;  two  kinds  of,  100 :  dif- 
ferences between  words  we 
merely  understand  and  words 
we  use,  100  ;  use  of  note-book 
to  increase  vocabulary.  101 ; 
study  of  synonyms,  102  ;  value 
of  concordances,  102 ;  value  of 
translation.  104 ;  special  vo- 
cabularies. 105 
Vulgarisms.  163.  164 

W. 

Walton,  Izaak,  95 
Wai!D,  Mrs.  riuMPiiEY,  126 
Which,  wrong  use  of,  202 
WniTK,    GiLBEKT,  203.  271 
Whole    composition,    structure   of. 
342-360  :    relation  of  paragraph 
to.    342 ;     unity    in,    342 :     pro- 
portion in,  342  ;    order  of  para- 
graphs   in,    343 :     usefulness   of 
plan    or    outline,    345 ;     useful- 
ness   of    connectives.    347 ;     be- 
ginnings.   349  :     endings.    351  : 
many  forms  of  the  whole   com- 
position.  361 
Will,    169 

Without,  unles.s,  184 
Womanly,  womanish.  1S7 
Words,     are     arbitrary     symbols. 
143  ;    number  of,  223-233  ;    sug- 
gestive power  of.  242  ;     specific 
and  general.   244 
Would,  169 


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